Surgery - Pelvis

Clinical Findings Suggesting Pelvic Injury

Obvious deformity or an open injury may indicate significant pelvic trauma.

Localised pelvic pain or limb paraesthesia may suggest associated bony or neurological injury.

Signs of retroperitoneal haemorrhage include bruising of the scrotum, buttocks, or along the line of the inguinal ligament, known as Fox’s sign.

Signs of urethral injury include blood at the urethral meatus, a high-riding prostate, and an inability to void urine.

Rectal examination may reveal blood or palpable bony fragments.

Reduced anal tone may indicate associated neurological or lumbosacral injury.

Abnormal pelvic stability on clinical assessment may also suggest disruption of the pelvic ring.

Types of Pelvic Injury

External rotation of the hemipelvis occurs with disruption of the pubic symphysis and is typically associated with anteroposterior compression.

This injury pattern may be caused by a direct anteroposterior compression force.

It may also result from a direct posterior blow to the iliac spines.

Forced external rotation of the lower limb can also produce this pattern of pelvic injury.

Internal rotation of the hemipelvis is associated with compression fractures of the pubic rami and usually results from lateral compression.

This pattern is typically caused by a lateral impact producing medial compression of the pelvis.

Vertical shear injury involves fracture-dislocation of the hemipelvis with superior and posterior displacement.

It is caused by a vertical loading force that fractures the pubic rami and disrupts the sacroiliac joint, resulting in displacement of the affected hemipelvis.

Pelvic Springing

Pelvic springing is a clinical test used to assess the stability and integrity of the pelvic ring.

It involves gentle compression of the iliac wings.

The aim is to identify pelvic instability that may suggest a fracture before imaging is obtained.

Main Concern in Pelvic Fracture

The major concern in pelvic fracture is uncontrolled haemorrhage into the pelvic cavity.

The pelvis can accommodate several litres of blood, so significant haemorrhage may occur before it becomes externally apparent.

Interim Management of Unstable Pelvic Fractures

A sheet may be placed beneath the buttocks and wrapped anteriorly around the pelvis, with the ends secured to provide a basic temporary splint.

Anterior external fixation may be used by inserting two pins into the anterior border of the ilium on each side and connecting them with a rigid external frame.

Posterior external fixation may involve pin insertion along the line between the anterior superior iliac spine and posterior superior iliac spine, with the pins connected using a reduction clamp.

External fixation should be performed by an experienced orthopaedic surgeon because of the risk of iatrogenic neurovascular injury.

Surgery - Musculoskeletal

Musculoskeletal Injuries Contributing to Shock

Several musculoskeletal injuries can result in significant blood loss and contribute to haemorrhagic shock. These include arterial bleeding, pelvic fractures, large vessel puncture, limb amputation, and long bone fractures. Long bone fractures can conceal substantial amounts of blood loss. A humeral fracture may be associated with approximately 0.5–1.5 litres of blood loss, a tibial fracture with approximately 0.5–1.5 litres, and a femoral fracture with approximately 1.0–2.5 litres.

Musculoskeletal Assessment in the Secondary Survey

The primary survey and ABCs should always be addressed first. Once the patient is stable, the musculoskeletal system can be assessed systematically during the secondary survey. This includes taking a focused history and examining the patient using the principles of look, feel, and move.

History

The history should include the position of the patient when first found or on arrival, any obvious or suspected trauma, and the mechanism of injury. In road traffic accidents, important details include seatbelt use, airbag deployment, whether the patient was able to mobilise after the accident, and the direction of impact. It is also useful to determine whether the patient was found close to or away from the accident site.

An AMPLE history should be taken, including allergies, medications, past medical history, last meal, and events surrounding the injury. Previous joint or limb pathology should also be identified. Osteoporosis and osteopenia are especially important because they increase susceptibility to fractures following relatively minor trauma.

Inspection

The patient should be appropriately exposed and both sides of the body compared. Look for open fractures, which may involve exposed bone but are not always immediately obvious. Other important features include swelling, deformity, bruising, wounds, and changes in the colour of the limb distal to the injury.

Palpation

Both sides should be compared while assessing the temperature of the distal limb, the presence of crepitus, joint effusions, haemarthroses, and capillary refill time. In a conscious patient, pain and tenderness should also be assessed. Neurological integrity should be checked by assessing fine touch sensation, motor function, and sweating of the skin, or hidrosis.

Movement

Range of active movement should be assessed in a conscious patient. Passive movement may be considered in an unconscious patient where appropriate. However, an obvious or suspected fracture should not be manipulated before X-ray imaging, as this does not add significantly to the diagnosis and may worsen the injury. Joint dislocations should generally be reduced as soon as clinically appropriate. Weight-bearing may be assessed as tolerated when relevant.

Investigations

Plain X-rays are the standard initial investigation for uncomplicated musculoskeletal trauma. Imaging should be selected according to the suspected site and type of injury.

Rule of Twos

The rule of twos is a useful principle when assessing fractures radiologically. Two joints should be considered, meaning the joint above and the joint below the injury should be assessed where appropriate. Two views, usually an anteroposterior and lateral view, should be obtained to assess displacement and angulation accurately. If doubt remains, the opposite side may occasionally be imaged for comparison, although this is rarely required.

Surgery - Glossary of Surgical Terminology

Abduct

Abduct means movement of an extremity away from the midline of the body.

Adduct

Adduct means movement of an extremity towards the midline of the body.

Adeno-

The prefix adeno- refers to glands or glandular tissue.

Afferent

Afferent means travelling or conducting towards a central structure.

Anastomosis

An anastomosis is a surgically created connection between two tubular structures, such as two segments of bowel or two blood vessels.

Angio-

The prefix angio- refers to blood vessels.

Anomalous

Anomalous means deviating from what is considered normal or expected.

Aseptic

Aseptic refers to the complete absence of disease-causing microorganisms or to measures used to prevent microbial contamination.

Atelectasis

Atelectasis refers to collapse of the alveoli, resulting in partial or complete loss of lung volume in the affected area.

Atresia

Atresia is the congenital absence or abnormal narrowing of a normal opening or lumen. The adjective is atretic.

Biopsy

A biopsy is a sample of tissue obtained from the body and sent for histopathological examination to establish a diagnosis.

Cachexia

Cachexia is generalized wasting and loss of body mass associated with chronic disease or malignancy. A patient affected by this condition may be described as cachectic.

Calculus

A calculus is a stone or solid concretion formed within the body, such as a renal or biliary calculus.

Calor

Calor is one of the classic signs of inflammation and refers to increased warmth in the affected area.

Caseation

Caseation is the breakdown of diseased tissue into a soft, cheese-like material. The adjective is caseous.

Caudal

Caudal means relating to or directed towards the lower part of the body.

Cephal-

The prefix cephal- refers to the head.

Cicatrix

A cicatrix is a scar formed after healing of damaged tissue.

Colic

Colic is pain that occurs in waves, usually due to contraction or obstruction of a hollow or tubular organ.

Curettage

Curettage is the scraping of the internal surface of an organ or body cavity using a spoon-shaped surgical instrument known as a curette.

Cyst

A cyst is an abnormal sac lined by epithelium and containing fluid or semi-solid material.

Diaphoresis

Diaphoresis refers to excessive or profuse sweating.

Diverticulum

A diverticulum is a small sac or pouch projecting from the wall of a hollow organ. A true diverticulum contains all the layers of the parent organ, as in Meckel’s diverticulum. A pseudodiverticulum contains only some of the normal wall layers, as commonly seen in diverticular disease of the colon.

Dolor

Dolor is one of the classic signs of inflammation and refers to pain.

Dysphagia

Dysphagia means difficulty swallowing. It should be distinguished from odynophagia, which means painful swallowing.

Ecchymosis

Ecchymosis refers to bruising caused by bleeding into the tissues beneath the skin.

-ectomy

The suffix -ectomy means surgical removal of an organ or structure. For example, parotidectomy is surgical removal of the parotid gland.

Epistaxis

Epistaxis means bleeding from the nose, commonly referred to as a nosebleed.

Excision Biopsy

An excision biopsy is a biopsy in which the entire lesion or tumour is removed for histopathological examination.

Fistula

A fistula is an abnormal epithelialized communication between two epithelial surfaces, organs, or body cavities.

Frequency

Urinary frequency refers to abnormally frequent urination.

Functio Laesa

Functio laesa is one of the classic signs of inflammation and refers to loss or impairment of function.

Haemangioma

A haemangioma is a benign tumour or proliferation of blood vessels.

Haematemesis

Haematemesis means vomiting of blood, usually indicating bleeding from the upper gastrointestinal tract.

Haematoma

A haematoma is a localized collection of blood within tissues that forms a swelling or mass. It may resolve spontaneously or may become secondarily infected.

Haematuria

Haematuria refers to the presence of blood in the urine.

Haemoptysis

Haemoptysis refers to coughing up blood originating from the respiratory tract.

Haemothorax

A haemothorax is the accumulation of blood within the pleural space.

Hesitancy

Urinary hesitancy refers to difficulty in initiating the flow of urine.

Icterus

Icterus is another term for jaundice, characterized by yellow discoloration of the skin, sclerae, and mucous membranes due to elevated bilirubin levels.

Incisional Biopsy

An incisional biopsy is a biopsy in which only part of a lesion or tumour is removed for histopathological examination rather than removing the entire lesion.

Induration

Induration refers to abnormal hardening of a tissue or organ, often caused by inflammation, infiltration, or fibrosis.

Intussusception

Intussusception occurs when one segment of the bowel telescopes into an adjacent segment of bowel, potentially causing intestinal obstruction and impairment of blood supply.

Laparoscopy

Laparoscopy is the visualization of the peritoneal cavity using a laparoscope inserted through small incisions. It uses optical technology to allow inspection and surgical procedures within the abdomen.

Laparotomy

A laparotomy is the surgical opening of the abdominal cavity through an incision.

Lumen

The lumen is the cavity or internal space within a tubular organ, such as the bowel or a blood vessel. The adjective is luminal.

Melaena

Melaena refers to black, tarry stools caused by digested blood, most commonly due to bleeding from the upper gastrointestinal tract.

Nocturia

Nocturia refers to abnormal urination during the night, typically requiring the patient to wake from sleep to pass urine.

Obstipation

Obstipation is the complete inability to pass either stool or flatus and may indicate severe intestinal obstruction.

Odynophagia

Odynophagia means painful swallowing.

Orchid-

The prefix orchid- refers to the testis or testicles.

-orrhaphy

The suffix -orrhaphy refers to surgical repair by suturing. For example, herniorrhaphy is the surgical repair of a hernia.

-ostomy

The suffix -ostomy refers to the surgical creation of an opening or stoma. For example, a colostomy is a surgically created opening of the colon onto the abdominal wall.

-otomy

The suffix -otomy refers to a surgical incision into an organ or structure. For example, a laparotomy involves making an incision into the abdominal cavity.

-pexy

The suffix -pexy refers to the surgical fixation of an organ or structure. For example, orchidopexy is surgical fixation of the testis.

Phlegmon

A phlegmon is a solid, swollen, inflamed mass of tissue. In pancreatitis, the term may be used to describe an inflammatory pancreatic mass.

Pneumaturia

Pneumaturia refers to the passage of gas or air in the urine. It may occur in conditions such as an enterovesical fistula.

Pneumothorax

A pneumothorax is the presence of air within the pleural space, which may cause partial or complete collapse of the affected lung.

Pus

Pus is a thick fluid produced during inflammation, particularly bacterial infection, and consists of inflammatory cells, microorganisms, and tissue debris. The correct adjective is purulent.

Rubor

Rubor is one of the classic signs of inflammation and refers to redness of the affected area.

Sinus

A sinus is an abnormal, blind-ending epithelialized tract that connects a deeper focus of disease to an epithelial surface.

Stenosis

Stenosis means abnormal narrowing of a lumen, passage, or opening.

Suppuration

Suppuration refers to the formation or discharge of pus.

Transection

Transection means transverse or complete division across a structure.

Volar

Volar refers to the surface of the palm of the hand or, in some anatomical contexts, the corresponding flexor surface.

Surgery - Surgical Abbreviations

General Symbols and Terms

# — Fracture.

1ry, 2ry, etc. — Primary, secondary, etc.

a/aa — Artery/arteries.

n/nn — Nerve/nerves.

v/vv — Vein/veins.

AA

AA — Alcoholics Anonymous.

ABG

ABG — Arterial blood gas.

ABPI

ABPI — Ankle-brachial pressure index.

Ab/AdPL/B

Ab/AdPL/B — Abductor/adductor pollicis longus/brevis.

Abx

Abx — Antibiotics.

AC

AC — Air conduction.

ACTH

ACTH — Adrenocorticotrophic hormone.

AF

AF — Atrial fibrillation.

AK[A]

AK[A] — Above knee [amputation].

AIDS

AIDS — Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome.

ALP

ALP — Alkaline phosphatase.

Amp

Amp — Ampicillin.

AOE

AOE — Acute otitis externa.

AOM

AOM — Acute otitis media.

AP

AP — Antero-posterior X-ray.

aPTT

aPTT — Activated partial thromboplastin time.

ARDS

ARDS — Adult respiratory distress syndrome.

ASA

ASA — Amino-salicylic acid (aspirin).

ASD

ASD — Atrial septal defect.

ASIS

ASIS — Anterior superior iliac spine.

AST

AST — Aspartate aminotransferase.

AXR

AXR — Abdominal X-ray.

BC

BC — Bone conduction.

bd

bd — Bis die, meaning twice daily.

BE

BE — Below elbow.

BK[A]

BK[A] — Below knee [amputation].

BLS

BLS — Basic Life Support.

BP

BP — Blood pressure.

CA

CA — Carcinoma.

CABG

CABG — Coronary artery bypass graft, sometimes pronounced “cabbage”.

CCF

CCF — Congestive cardiac failure.

Cef

Cef — Cefuroxime.

chrm

chrm — Chromosome.

CIS

CIS — Carcinoma in situ.

CMV

CMV — Cytomegalovirus.

C/O

C/O — Complains of.

COPD

COPD — Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.

CRP

CRP — C-reactive protein, an inflammatory marker.

CRT

CRT — Capillary refill time.

CSOM

CSOM — Chronic suppurative otitis media.

CT

CT — Computed tomography.

CVA

CVA — Cerebrovascular accident. The term “stroke” is generally preferred.

CVP

CVP — Central venous pressure.

CXR

CXR — Chest X-ray.

D5W

D5W — Dextrose 5% in water.

DHx

DHx — Drug history.

DIC

DIC — Disseminated intravascular coagulation.

DIPJ

DIPJ — Distal interphalangeal joint.

DM

DM — Diabetes mellitus.

DRE

DRE — Digital rectal examination.

DT

DT — Delirium tremens.

DVT

DVT — Deep vein thrombosis.

Dx

Dx — Diagnosis.

ECG

ECG — Electrocardiogram.

Echo

Echo — Echocardiogram.

ENT

ENT — Ear, nose and throat.

EPB/L

EPB/L — Extensor pollicis brevis/longus.

ESR

ESR — Erythrocyte sedimentation rate.

ETOH

ETOH — Alcohol.

EUA

EUA — Examination under anaesthesia.

Ex-Fix

Ex-Fix — External fixation.

FBC

FBC — Full blood count.

FDP

FDP — Fibrin degradation products.

FDP/S

FDP/S — Flexor digitorum profundus/superficialis.

FESS

FESS — Functional endoscopic sinus surgery.

FFP

FFP — Fresh frozen plasma.

FNA[C]

FNA[C] — Fine needle aspirate [cytology].

FOOSH

FOOSH — Fall on the outstretched hand.

FTSG

FTSG — Full thickness skin graft.

GA

GA — General anaesthetic.

GCS

GCS — Glasgow Coma Scale.

Gent

Gent — Gentamicin.

GP

GP — General Practitioner.

G&S

G&S — Group and save.

GTN

GTN — Glyceryl trinitrate.

GXM

GXM — Group and cross match.

HIV

HIV — Human immunodeficiency virus.

HPV

HPV — Human papilloma virus.

HTN

HTN — Hypertension.

HZO

HZO — Herpes zoster ophthalmicus.

ICP

ICP — Intracranial pressure.

I&D

I&D — Incision and drainage, commonly used for abscesses.

IHD

IHD — Ischaemic heart disease.

IMN

IMN — Intramedullary nailing.

IOP

IOP — Intra-ocular pressure.

ITU

ITU — Intensive Therapy Unit.

IVC

IVC — Inferior vena cava.

IVDU

IVDU — Intravenous drug user.

IVF

IVF — Intravenous fluids.

IVP/U

IVP/U — Intravenous pyelogram/urogram.

JVP

JVP — Jugular venous pressure.

KUB

KUB — Kidneys, ureters and bladder plain film.

LA

LA — Local anaesthetic.

lat

lat — Lateral X-ray.

LFT

LFT — Liver function test.

LUQ

LUQ — Left upper quadrant.

MAX FAX

MAX FAX — Maxillo-facial surgery.

MC

MC — Metacarpal.

M/C/S

M/C/S — Microscopy, culture and sensitivity.

Metro

Metro — Metronidazole.

MI

MI — Myocardial infarction.

MOF

MOF — Multiorgan failure.

MSU

MSU — Midstream urine.

MUA

MUA — Manipulation under anaesthetic.

N/A

N/A — Not applicable.

NAD

NAD — Nil abnormality detected.

NBM

NBM — Nil by mouth.

NGT

NGT — Nasogastric tube.

NOF

NOF — Neck of femur.

N/S

N/S — Normal saline.

NSAIDs

NSAIDs — Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs.

OA

OA — Osteoarthritis.

OCP

OCP — Oral contraceptive pill.

od

od — Omni die, meaning once daily.

qds

qds — Quater die sumendus, meaning to be taken four times daily.

OGD

OGD — Oesophagogastroduodenoscopy.

OPG

OPG — Orthopantomogram.

ORIF

ORIF — Open reduction and internal fixation.

OT

OT — Operating Theatre/Occupational Therapist.

PAN

PAN — Polyarteritis nodosum.

PCA

PCA — Patient-controlled analgesia.

PCWP

PCWP — Pulmonary capillary wedge pressure.

PDA

PDA — Patent ductus arteriosus.

PE

PE — Pulmonary embolism.

PEEP

PEEP — Positive end-expiratory pressure.

PERLA

PERLA — Pupils equal and reactive to light and accommodation.

PICU

PICU — Paediatric intensive therapy unit.

PIPJ

PIPJ — Proximal interphalangeal joint.

PMHx

PMHx — Past medical history.

PO

PO — Per os, meaning orally.

POP

POP — Plaster of Paris.

PR

PR — Per rectum, meaning rectally.

PRN

PRN — Pro re nata, meaning as needed.

PSIS

PSIS — Posterior superior iliac spine.

PT

PT — Prothrombin time.

PTCA

PTCA — Percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty.

PUD

PUD — Peptic ulcer disease.

PV

PV — Per vaginum, meaning vaginally.

qxh

qxh — Every x hours. For example, q3h means every 3 hours.

RAPD

RAPD — Relative afferent pupillary defect.

RBS

RBS — Random blood sugar.

r/o

r/o — Rule out.

RTA

RTA — Road traffic accident.

RUQ

RUQ — Right upper quadrant.

Rx

Rx — Treatment.

SCC

SCC — Squamous cell carcinoma.

SIRS

SIRS — Systemic inflammatory response syndrome.

SLE

SLE — Systemic lupus erythematosus.

SNHL

SNHL — Sensorineural hearing loss.

SOB

SOB — Shortness of breath.

SSG

SSG — Split skin graft.

stat

stat — Immediately.

STD

STD — Sexually transmitted disease.

SVC

SVC — Superior vena cava.

Sx

Sx — Surgery.

SXR

SXR — Skull X-ray.

TB

TB — Tuberculosis.

tds

tds — Ter die sumendus, meaning to be taken three times daily.

TIA

TIA — Transient ischaemic attack.

TM

TM — Tympanic membrane.

TMJ

TMJ — Temporomandibular joint.

TOE

TOE — Transoesophageal echocardiogram.

TPN

TPN — Total parenteral nutrition.

TRAM

TRAM — Transverse rectus abdominis muscle.

TTE

TTE — Transthoracic echocardiogram.

UC

UC — Ulcerative colitis.

U&Es

U&Es — Urea and electrolytes, including creatinine.

U/O

U/O — Urine output.

URTI

URTI — Upper respiratory tract infection.

USS

USS — Ultrasound scan.

UTI

UTI — Urinary tract infection.

Vanc

Vanc — Vancomycin.

VE

VE — Vaginal examination.

VSD

VSD — Ventricular septal defect.

VUJ

VUJ — Vesico-ureteric junction.

WBC/WCC

WBC/WCC — White blood cells/white cell count.

Surgery-

Surgical Signs, Tests, Laws, Syndromes and Eponyms

Allen’s Test

Allen’s test is used to assess the circulation of the hand and the patency of the radial and ulnar arteries. The patient is asked to drain the hand of blood by forming a fist while the examiner compresses both the radial and ulnar arteries. The patient then opens the hand, which should appear blanched. One artery is released and the examiner observes for palmar flushing, indicating arterial patency. The procedure is then repeated for the other artery.

Argyll Robertson Pupil

Argyll Robertson pupil is a condition in which the pupil constricts or dilates appropriately during accommodation but does not respond to light. In other words, the accommodation reflex is preserved while the pupillary light reflex is absent. A useful mnemonic is ARP, PRA, which translates to Accommodation Reflex Present, Pupillary Response Absent.

Barton’s Fracture

Barton’s fracture is a fracture-dislocation of the distal radius and may sometimes be mistaken for a Colles’ fracture. The fracture line extends across the volar lip of the radius and into the wrist joint. The hand and the associated fragment of distal radius undergo proximal and volar displacement.

Battle’s Sign

Battle’s sign is ecchymosis over the mastoid or post-auricular region and is associated with a basal skull fracture. It is an important clinical sign indicating possible fracture of the base of the skull.

Beck’s Triad

Beck’s triad is classically seen in cardiac tamponade. It consists of jugular venous distension, muffled heart sounds, and decreased blood pressure or hypotension. These findings result from impaired cardiac filling due to pressure from fluid within the pericardial sac.

Bell’s Palsy

Bell’s palsy is an acute lower motor neurone facial nerve palsy of unknown aetiology. It produces weakness or paralysis of the muscles on one side of the face and is generally regarded as a diagnosis of exclusion.

Chvostek’s Sign

Chvostek’s sign is seen in hypocalcaemia. It is elicited by tapping over the facial nerve, which causes twitching or contraction of the facial muscles due to increased neuromuscular excitability.

Colles’ Fracture

A Colles’ fracture is a fracture of the distal approximately 2 cm of the radius with dorsal displacement of the distal fragment. This produces the characteristic dinner-fork deformity of the wrist.

Compartment Syndrome

Compartment syndrome is a condition in which pressure increases within a confined anatomical compartment. The rising pressure adversely affects circulation and threatens the function and viability of the muscles, nerves, and other tissues within that compartment.

Cushing’s Triad

Cushing’s triad is seen in raised intracranial pressure. It consists of increased blood pressure, bradycardia, and irregular respirations. These findings may indicate severe intracranial hypertension.

De Quervain’s Tenosynovitis

De Quervain’s tenosynovitis is inflammation of the extensor pollicis brevis (EPB) and abductor pollicis longus (AbPL) tendons, usually secondary to overuse. It causes pain around the radial side of the wrist and may be demonstrated clinically using Finkelstein’s test.

Finkelstein’s Test

Finkelstein’s test is used to assess for De Quervain’s tenosynovitis. The thumb is clenched within the fist and the wrist is moved in a way that stretches the extensor pollicis brevis and abductor pollicis longus tendons. Reproduction of pain over the radial aspect of the wrist supports the diagnosis.

Frey’s Syndrome

Frey’s syndrome is characterized by warmth, flushing, and sweating in the malar or parotid region of the face during eating, or even when thinking or talking about food. It is also known as gustatory sweating. It may follow damage in the parotid region caused by trauma, mumps, purulent infection, or parotidectomy. After the initial damage, autonomic fibres that previously supplied the salivary glands may regenerate incorrectly and connect with sweat glands. As a result, a stimulus that normally causes salivation instead causes sweating and flushing. Flushing has been described as more prevalent in females and sweating as more prevalent in males. Gustatory tears, also known as crocodile tears, may sometimes occur.

Galeazzi Fracture

A Galeazzi fracture is a fracture of the radial shaft associated with dislocation of the distal radioulnar joint. This disrupts the normal forearm axis. It is sometimes referred to as a reverse Monteggia fracture.

Gradenigo’s Syndrome

Gradenigo’s syndrome is seen as a complication of suppurative otitis media. It consists of signs of acute suppurative otitis media, ipsilateral abducens nerve palsy, and pain in the distribution of the ipsilateral trigeminal nerve.

Hitselberger’s Sign

Hitselberger’s sign is an abnormal sensory change involving the posterior external auditory canal, classically associated with acoustic neuroma. It may occur together with ipsilateral hearing loss.

Horner’s Syndrome

Horner’s syndrome results from disruption of the ipsilateral sympathetic nerve supply to the eye and face. It is characterized by ipsilateral ptosis, miosis, anhidrosis, and apparent enophthalmos. A classic cause is a Pancoast tumour, which is a tumour arising from the upper part or apex of the lung.

Monteggia Fracture

A Monteggia fracture consists of dislocation of the radial head associated with a fracture of the proximal third of the ulna.

Osler–Rendu–Weber Syndrome

Osler–Rendu–Weber syndrome, also known as hereditary haemorrhagic telangiectasia, is a familial disorder characterized by telangiectasia affecting mucosal surfaces. These vascular lesions may be present in several areas, but a common presentation is recurrent epistaxis.

Pendred’s Syndrome

Pendred’s syndrome is an autosomal recessive disorder characterized by congenital sensorineural hearing loss and thyroid enlargement or goitre.

Pierre Robin Sequence

Pierre Robin sequence is characterized by a hypoplastic or small mandible, cleft palate, and glossoptosis. Glossoptosis refers to posterior or downward displacement of the tongue and may contribute to upper airway obstruction or obstructive sleep apnoea. External, middle, and inner ear problems may also occur.

Raccoon Eyes

Raccoon eyes are seen in basal skull fractures and consist of bilateral periorbital ecchymosis. The appearance is also known as panda eyes.

Refsum’s Disease

Refsum’s disease is characterized by retinitis pigmentosa, cerebellar ataxia, peripheral neuropathy, and sensorineural hearing loss. It is an inherited metabolic disorder with prominent neurological, ophthalmological, and auditory manifestations.

Ramsay Hunt Syndrome

Ramsay Hunt syndrome is a facial nerve palsy caused by herpes zoster infection involving the facial nerve. It presents with a lower motor neurone facial nerve palsy together with painful vesicular or haemorrhagic blistering involving the ipsilateral ear or tympanic membrane. It is also known as herpes zoster oticus.

Smith’s Fracture

A Smith’s fracture is a fracture of the distal radius that usually occurs when a patient lands on a flexed wrist. The distal radial fragment is displaced anteriorly or volarly. It is often referred to as a reverse Colles’ fracture.

Superior Vena Cava Syndrome

Superior vena cava syndrome is caused by obstruction of the superior vena cava, for example by a tumour or thrombosis. It produces venous congestion and engorgement of the face, neck, and upper chest veins in the distribution of the superior vena cava.

Thoracic Outlet Syndrome

Thoracic outlet syndrome occurs when structures passing through the thoracic outlet are compressed. Possible causes include a cervical rib. Depending on the structures affected, the patient may develop neurological or vascular symptoms involving the upper limb.

Thornwaldt’s Cyst

A Thornwaldt’s cyst is a benign cystic swelling of the nasopharynx and is uncommon, particularly in adults. It arises from the pharyngeal bursa and is located in the superoposterior nasopharynx. A sufficiently large cyst may contribute to obstruction in this region.

Treacher Collins Syndrome

Treacher Collins syndrome is an autosomal dominant craniofacial disorder characterized by hypoplasia of the maxilla and mandible. Patients may also have microtia, meaning small or underdeveloped ears, together with abnormalities of the external, middle, or inner ear and associated hearing problems.

Trousseau’s Sign

Trousseau’s sign is seen in hypocalcaemia. It is demonstrated by producing temporary blood-flow occlusion with a blood pressure cuff, which causes carpopedal spasm due to increased neuromuscular excitability.

Waardenburg Syndrome

Waardenburg syndrome is an inherited disorder characterized by abnormalities of pigmentation and hearing. Features include telecanthus, pigment abnormalities such as a white forelock and heterochromia iridis, and sensorineural hearing loss. Telecanthus refers to an increased distance between the inner corners of the eyes.

Ophthalmology – Congenital Orbital Tumors

Basics

Description

Congenital orbital tumors and developmental masses are lesions present at birth or arising during early childhood.

The most important entities in this group include:

• Dermoid cyst
• Epidermoid cyst
• Orbital teratoma

Other congenital orbital masses include:

• Lymphatic malformations
• Venous/venolymphatic malformations
• Congenital cystic eye
• Colobomatous cyst
• Encephalocele

Orbital Dermoid and Epidermoid Cysts

These are benign developmental cysts caused by sequestration of ectoderm during embryologic fusion.

They are among the:

Most common orbital masses in children

Typical locations are along bony sutures, especially the:

Frontozymgomatic suture in the superotemporal orbit

Less commonly they occur:

• Superonasally
• Deep within the orbit
• Within bone
• Within orbital soft tissue without obvious suture attachment

Dermoid vs Epidermoid Cyst

Dermoid Cyst

Lined by keratinizing stratified squamous epithelium and contains dermal appendages such as:

• Hair follicles
• Sebaceous glands
• Sweat glands

Contents may include:

• Keratin
• Sebum
• Hair

Epidermoid Cyst

Also lined by stratified squamous epithelium but:

Lacks dermal appendages

It predominantly contains:

• Desquamated keratin

Epidemiology

Dermoid and epidermoid cysts are commonly diagnosed in:

• Infancy
• Early childhood

but may present at any age.

There is no strong sex predilection.

They represent a substantial proportion of excised pediatric orbital lesions.

Orbital Teratoma

Orbital teratoma is a:

Very rare congenital germ-cell tumor

It usually presents:

• At birth
• Shortly after birth

Most are:

• Unilateral
• Mature
• Histologically benign

They can become enormous and produce marked orbital expansion.

Pathophysiology

Dermoid/Epidermoid Cysts

They arise when ectoderm becomes trapped during embryonic fusion along:

• Bony sutures
• Lines of closure

Types may be described anatomically as:

• Juxtasutural
• Sutural
• Soft-tissue/deep orbital

Slow accumulation of keratinous or sebaceous material causes progressive enlargement.

Dermoid Cyst Rupture

Spontaneous or traumatic rupture releases lipid and keratin into surrounding tissues and can cause:

Marked granulomatous inflammation

resulting in:

• Pain
• Redness
• Swelling
• Orbital inflammation

This may mimic infection.

Orbital Teratoma Pathophysiology

Teratomas arise from pluripotent germ cells and contain tissues derived from all three germ layers:

• Ectoderm
• Mesoderm
• Endoderm

They may contain:

• Fat
• Bone
• Cartilage
• Neural tissue
• Epithelium
• Cystic structures

Clinical Presentation

Dermoid / Epidermoid Cyst

Typically presents as:

• Painless
• Slowly enlarging
• Subcutaneous orbital or periocular mass

The classic lesion is:

Superotemporal near the frontozygomatic suture

On palpation it is often:

• Smooth
• Firm or fluctuant
• Nontender
• Partially mobile relative to skin

Associated Findings

Most superficial dermoids do not cause:

• Visual loss
• Elevated IOP
• Significant motility disturbance

Large or deep lesions can cause:

• Globe displacement
• Proptosis
• Diplopia
• Astigmatism
• Amblyopia

Astigmatism and Amblyopia

A lesion compressing the globe may produce:

• Corneal astigmatism
• Anisometropia

which can lead to:

Amblyopia in young children

Therefore refraction should be checked in pediatric patients.

Deep Orbital Dermoid

Deep lesions may present later with:

• Progressive proptosis
• Globe displacement
• Diplopia
• Motility restriction

They are less likely to be visible externally.

Orbital Teratoma – Clinical Presentation

The classic presentation is:

Massive unilateral proptosis present at birth

Features may include:

• Markedly enlarged orbit
• Tense eyelids
• Severe globe displacement
• Exposure keratopathy
• Conjunctival keratinization
• Corneal ulceration
• Vascular congestion

Vision may be severely compromised from:

• Optic nerve stretching/compression
• Exposure damage
• Amblyopia

History

Dermoid / Epidermoid

Usually:

• Long-standing
• Slowly progressive
• Asymptomatic

Sudden pain and swelling suggest:

• Rupture
• Hemorrhage
• Secondary inflammation

Trauma may precipitate rupture but is not the underlying cause.

Orbital Teratoma

History usually reveals:

• Proptosis at birth
• Rapid enlargement during early infancy
• Severe unilateral orbital expansion

Examination

Assess:

• Visual acuity
• Pupils
• Refraction
• Ocular alignment
• Motility
• Degree and direction of globe displacement
• Proptosis
• Exposure keratopathy
• Fundus

In young children, specifically evaluate for:

Amblyopia

Imaging – Dermoid and Epidermoid Cysts

Imaging is particularly useful for:

• Deep lesions
• Fixed lesions
• Atypical location
• Suspected intracranial extension
• Surgical planning

CT

CT is particularly useful for demonstrating:

• Relationship to orbital bone
• Suture location
• Bony remodeling
• Intraosseous extension

A dermoid is often:

• Round or ovoid
• Well circumscribed

Its density varies depending on:

• Fat
• Sebaceous material
• Keratin

A fat-fluid level may occasionally be present.

MRI

MRI provides superior soft-tissue assessment.

Signal characteristics are variable depending on cyst contents.

MRI is especially useful for:

• Deep lesions
• Intracranial extension
• Complex orbital anatomy

Epidermoid on MRI

Epidermoid cysts can show:

Restricted diffusion on diffusion-weighted imaging

which may help distinguish them from other cystic lesions.

Imaging – Orbital Teratoma

Both CT and MRI usually demonstrate a:

Large heterogeneous, multiloculated orbital mass

containing mixtures of:

• Solid tissue
• Cystic components
• Fat
• Calcification
• Bone

CT in Teratoma

CT is particularly good for identifying:

• Calcification
• Ossification
• Orbital expansion
• Bony remodeling

The combination of:

Fat + fluid/cystic tissue + calcification

strongly suggests teratoma.

MRI in Teratoma

MRI better defines:

• Soft-tissue components
• Optic nerve relationship
• Globe compression
• Intracranial extension

Pathology

Dermoid Cyst

Histology shows:

• Keratinizing stratified squamous epithelium
• Hair follicles
• Sebaceous glands
• Sweat glands

Inflammatory giant-cell reaction may occur after rupture.

Epidermoid Cyst

Histology shows:

• Keratinizing squamous epithelial lining
• Keratinaceous contents
• No dermal appendages

Teratoma

A mature teratoma contains differentiated tissue from all three germ layers.

Grossly it may be:

• Solid
• Cystic
• Multiloculated
• Partially calcified or ossified

Most congenital orbital teratomas are mature and benign.

Differential Diagnosis

The differential for an orbital mass in an infant or child includes:

• Infantile hemangioma
• Venous malformation
• Lymphatic malformation
• Rhabdomyosarcoma
• Optic pathway glioma
• Neuroblastoma metastasis
• Retinoblastoma with orbital extension
• Leukemia/chloroma
• Langerhans cell histiocytosis
• Orbital cellulitis
• Abscess
• Lacrimal lesions
• Mucocele
• Encephalocele
• Colobomatous cyst
• Congenital cystic eye

Infantile Hemangioma

Previously often called capillary hemangioma.

Usually develops during the first weeks of life rather than being fully developed at birth.

May cause:

• Eyelid swelling
• Proptosis
• Globe displacement
• Astigmatism
• Amblyopia

It is distinguished from venous/lymphatic malformations by its characteristic proliferative and involutional course.

Lymphatic Malformation

Previously called lymphangioma.

It is a congenital vascular malformation that may involve:

• Eyelid
• Conjunctiva
• Orbit

It often enlarges gradually but may suddenly expand from:

• Intralesional hemorrhage
• Upper respiratory infection

MRI frequently demonstrates:

• Multiloculated cystic spaces
• Fluid-fluid levels after hemorrhage

Rhabdomyosarcoma

The most important malignant pediatric orbital differential.

Typical features:

• Rapidly progressive proptosis
• Eyelid swelling
• Globe displacement
• First decade of life

Unlike a dermoid, it generally enlarges over:

Days to weeks

rather than years.

Optic Pathway Glioma

Usually presents with:

• Slowly progressive visual loss
• Optic atrophy or disc swelling
• Proptosis with intraorbital optic nerve involvement

It is strongly associated with:

NF1

MRI demonstrates:

• Fusiform enlargement of the optic nerve

Modern management is generally observation or systemic therapy when progressive, not routine surgical excision.

Neuroblastoma

Orbital metastatic neuroblastoma may present with:

• Proptosis
• Periorbital ecchymosis
• Eyelid swelling

Bilateral orbital disease is particularly suggestive.

Congenital Cystic Eye

A rare developmental anomaly caused by failure of normal globe formation.

The orbit contains:

• Cystic primitive neuroectodermal/ocular tissue

with no normally developed eye.

Encephalocele

A congenital skull defect may permit herniation of:

• Meninges
• Brain tissue

into or near the orbit.

Imaging before surgery is essential because of intracranial communication.

Colobomatous Cyst

Usually occurs with:

• Microphthalmia
• Inferior ocular coloboma

A cyst extends through the embryonic fissure defect and may occupy part of the orbit.

Treatment – Dermoid/Epidermoid Cyst

Small, asymptomatic lesions may sometimes be observed.

Surgical excision is generally favored when there is:

• Progressive enlargement
• Cosmetic deformity
• Pain
• Recurrent inflammation
• Globe displacement
• Astigmatism
• Amblyopia risk
• Exposure to repeated trauma
• Diagnostic uncertainty

Surgical Excision

The goal is:

Complete removal of the cyst with the capsule intact

because rupture can cause:

• Intense inflammation
• Foreign-body granuloma
• Incomplete removal
• Recurrence

If rupture occurs intraoperatively, copious irrigation and removal of cyst contents are important.

Deep Dermoid

Deep orbital dermoids require careful preoperative imaging because they may:

• Extend through sutures
• Cause bony remodeling
• Have intracranial extension

Surgical approach depends on location and extent.

Treatment – Orbital Teratoma

The main treatment is:

Early surgical excision

Goals are to:

• Preserve the globe when possible
• Protect visual potential
• Reduce exposure complications
• Preserve orbital and facial growth
• Achieve good cosmesis

Globe Preservation

Modern surgery emphasizes globe-sparing removal whenever technically possible.

Because most congenital orbital teratomas are benign:

Radical surgery should be avoided when adequate complete excision can preserve the eye and orbit.

Exenteration

Orbital exenteration is now:

Rarely required

and reserved for extraordinary cases in which the mass cannot otherwise be safely controlled or the orbital structures are irreversibly compromised.

Postoperative Care

Monitor for:

• Residual or recurrent lesion
• Visual impairment
• Amblyopia
• Strabismus
• Orbital asymmetry
• Exposure disease
• Need for reconstructive surgery

Follow-Up – Dermoid/Epidermoid

If observation is selected, monitor for:

• Growth
• New pain
• Inflammation
• Globe displacement
• Visual effects

After complete excision, recurrence is uncommon.

Follow-Up – Teratoma

Follow-up should assess:

• Recurrence
• Orbital development
• Globe position
• Vision
• Amblyopia
• Cosmetic development

Repeat imaging is appropriate when:

• Excision was incomplete
• Pathology is atypical
• Recurrence is suspected

Prognosis

Dermoid/Epidermoid Cysts

Prognosis is:

Excellent

Most children maintain normal vision if:

• Astigmatism is detected
• Amblyopia is treated
• Complicated rupture is avoided

Complete excision is usually curative.

Orbital Teratoma

Systemic prognosis is generally excellent because most congenital orbital teratomas are:

Mature and benign

Visual prognosis is more variable.

It depends on:

• Duration and severity of proptosis
• Optic nerve compression
• Exposure keratopathy
• Degree of globe distortion
• Amblyopia

Even when the globe can be preserved, useful vision may be limited.

Complications

Dermoid/Epidermoid

Potential complications include:

• Cyst rupture
• Granulomatous inflammation
• Pain
• Globe displacement
• Astigmatism
• Amblyopia
• Recurrence after incomplete excision

Orbital Teratoma

Potential complications include:

• Massive proptosis
• Exposure keratopathy
• Corneal ulceration
• Optic nerve injury
• Permanent visual loss
• Amblyopia
• Orbital/facial asymmetry
• Rare recurrence

Malignant transformation of a mature congenital orbital teratoma is exceedingly uncommon.

Ophthalmology Pearls

• Dermoid cyst is one of the most common orbital masses of childhood.
• The classic dermoid is a painless superotemporal mass at the frontozygomatic suture.
• Dermoid cysts contain skin appendages; epidermoid cysts do not.
• Sudden painful enlargement of a previously quiet dermoid suggests rupture with granulomatous inflammation.
• Large orbital dermoids can induce astigmatism and amblyopia, so refraction matters in children.
• CT is particularly useful for bone and calcification; MRI is better for soft tissue and intracranial extension.
• Epidermoid cysts characteristically may show restricted diffusion on MRI.
• Orbital teratoma classically causes massive unilateral proptosis at birth.
• A teratoma containing fat, cystic tissue, and calcification on imaging is highly characteristic.
• Mature orbital teratomas contain tissue from all three germ layers: ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm.
• Complete dermoid excision should ideally preserve the capsule because rupture increases inflammation and recurrence risk.
• Modern teratoma surgery aims for globe preservation, with exenteration reserved for exceptional cases.
• In a child with rapidly progressive proptosis, always exclude rhabdomyosarcoma.
• Use modern terminology: infantile hemangioma rather than capillary hemangioma, and lymphatic malformation rather than lymphangioma.

Medicine – Vitamin Deficiencies

Vitamins are essential organic compounds required in relatively small amounts for normal metabolism, neurological function, blood formation, vision, bone health, coagulation and tissue maintenance. Deficiency may occur because of poor dietary intake, malabsorption, chronic illness, alcohol misuse, increased physiological requirements or medications that interfere with vitamin metabolism.

A useful first distinction is between fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E and K and the water-soluble B-group vitamins and vitamin C. Fat malabsorption therefore particularly predisposes to deficiencies of:

A, D, E and K.

1. Vitamin A Deficiency

Vitamin A is important for:

Vision.

Epithelial integrity.

Immune function.

Cell differentiation.

The retinal form of vitamin A participates in formation of visual pigments required for vision, particularly in:

Low-light conditions.

Causes of Vitamin A Deficiency

The original notes correctly include:

Protein-energy malnutrition.

Other important causes include:

Severe dietary deficiency.

Fat malabsorption.

Chronic cholestatic liver disease.

Pancreatic insufficiency.

Because vitamin A is fat-soluble, disorders that impair fat absorption can reduce its absorption.

Night Blindness

One of the earliest characteristic manifestations is:

Night blindness – nyctalopia.

The patient has difficulty seeing when moving from a bright environment into:

Dim light.

Therefore:

VITAMIN A DEFICIENCY → NIGHT BLINDNESS.

Xerophthalmia

More severe deficiency produces dryness of the:

Conjunctiva and cornea.

This is part of:

Xerophthalmia.

Characteristic ocular abnormalities can include:

Conjunctival xerosis.

Bitot spots.

Corneal xerosis.

Keratomalacia

Severe vitamin A deficiency may cause:

Keratomalacia.

This involves softening and destruction of the cornea and can result in:

Permanent blindness.

Therefore:

VITAMIN A → NIGHT BLINDNESS → XEROPHTHALMIA → KERATOMALACIA.

2. Vitamin B1 – Thiamine Deficiency

Thiamine – vitamin B1 is essential for carbohydrate metabolism and normal neurological and cardiac function.

Thiamine deficiency is particularly important because severe neurological deficiency can become:

A medical emergency.

Causes of Thiamine Deficiency

The original notes include:

Alcohol misuse

and

Dietary restriction.

Other causes include:

Severe malnutrition.

Prolonged vomiting.

Malabsorption.

Bariatric surgery.

Increased metabolic requirements.

Chronic alcohol misuse is particularly important because it can combine:

Poor intake + impaired absorption + reduced storage/utilisation.

3. Dry Beriberi

Neurological thiamine deficiency produces:

Dry beriberi.

Typical manifestations include:

Peripheral neuropathy.

Muscle weakness.

Reduced reflexes.

Sensory abnormalities.

Therefore:

DRY BERIBERI = MAINLY NEUROLOGICAL.

4. Wet Beriberi

Cardiovascular thiamine deficiency produces:

Wet beriberi.

This may cause:

Peripheral vasodilatation.

Tachycardia.

Oedema.

High-output cardiac failure.

Therefore:

WET BERIBERI = MAINLY CARDIOVASCULAR.

5. Wernicke Encephalopathy

Severe thiamine deficiency can cause:

Wernicke encephalopathy.

The classic triad is:

Confusion.

Ataxia.

Ocular abnormalities, such as ophthalmoplegia or nystagmus.

However, the complete triad is often absent.

Therefore thiamine should be given promptly when Wernicke encephalopathy is suspected.

6. Korsakoff Syndrome

Untreated or prolonged thiamine deficiency may progress to:

Korsakoff syndrome.

Typical features include:

Severe anterograde amnesia.

Memory impairment.

Confabulation.

The older combined term:

Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome

describes the relationship between the acute encephalopathic and chronic amnestic manifestations.

7. Vitamin B2 – Riboflavin Deficiency

Riboflavin – vitamin B2 is required for flavin-containing coenzymes involved in:

Cellular energy metabolism.

Deficiency commonly occurs in association with:

General malnutrition.

Causes of Riboflavin Deficiency

The original notes include:

Protein-energy malnutrition.

Other situations associated with deficiency include:

Poor dietary intake.

Malabsorption.

Chronic alcohol misuse.

Deficiency often occurs together with other vitamin deficiencies rather than in isolation.

Clinical Features

Characteristic manifestations include:

Angular cheilitis/stomatitis.

Glossitis.

The tongue may become:

Red and inflamed.

Other mucocutaneous changes can also occur.

Therefore:

B2 DEFICIENCY → GLOSSITIS + ANGULAR STOMATITIS/CHEILITIS.

8. Niacin – Vitamin B3 Deficiency

Niacin – vitamin B3 is required for formation of:

NAD and NADP.

These coenzymes participate in numerous oxidation-reduction reactions and energy-producing pathways.

Causes of Niacin Deficiency

The original notes include:

Alcohol misuse.

Isoniazid.

Carcinoid syndrome.

Severe dietary deficiency or malabsorption can also cause niacin deficiency.

Carcinoid Syndrome and Niacin

Tryptophan can normally be used for:

Niacin synthesis.

In carcinoid syndrome, large amounts of tryptophan may be diverted toward:

Serotonin synthesis.

This reduces substrate available for niacin production and can contribute to:

Pellagra.

9. Pellagra

Niacin deficiency causes:

Pellagra.

The classic manifestations are remembered as the:

Four Ds.

Dermatitis.

Diarrhoea.

Dementia.

Death.

Pellagra Dermatitis

The dermatitis is characteristically:

Photosensitive.

It tends to affect sun-exposed skin.

A characteristic distribution around the neck is traditionally called:

Casal’s necklace.

Therefore:

NIACIN DEFICIENCY → PELLAGRA → 4 Ds.

10. Vitamin B6 – Pyridoxine Deficiency

Pyridoxine – vitamin B6 is important in:

Amino-acid metabolism.

Neurotransmitter synthesis.

Haem synthesis.

Causes of Vitamin B6 Deficiency

The original notes correctly include:

Isoniazid

and

Hydralazine.

Isoniazid is particularly important because it interferes with pyridoxine metabolism.

Clinical Features

Vitamin B6 deficiency may cause:

Peripheral neuropathy.

Glossitis.

Cheilosis.

Dermatitis.

It can also impair haem synthesis and produce:

Sideroblastic anaemia.

In severe deficiency, neurological manifestations such as seizures can occur.

Isoniazid and Pyridoxine

A classic examination association is:

ISONIAZID → B6 DEFICIENCY → PERIPHERAL NEUROPATHY.

Pyridoxine supplementation is therefore given to patients at increased risk of isoniazid-associated neuropathy.

11. Vitamin B12 – Cobalamin Deficiency

Vitamin B12 – cobalamin is essential for:

DNA synthesis.

Normal red-cell production.

Neurological function.

Myelin maintenance.

The image uses the term cyanocobalamin, which is one pharmaceutical form of vitamin B12; cobalamin is the broader physiological term.

Causes of Vitamin B12 Deficiency

Important causes include:

Pernicious anaemia.

Autoimmune gastritis.

Gastrectomy.

Terminal ileal disease or resection.

Crohn disease affecting the terminal ileum.

Severe dietary deficiency, especially prolonged strict vegan intake without supplementation.

Malabsorption.

Some medications, such as prolonged metformin use, can also contribute.

12. Pernicious Anaemia

Pernicious anaemia results from autoimmune loss of:

Intrinsic factor

and gastric parietal-cell dysfunction.

Intrinsic factor is required for B12 absorption in the:

Terminal ileum.

Therefore:

LOSS OF INTRINSIC FACTOR → B12 MALABSORPTION → B12 DEFICIENCY.

13. Haematological Features of B12 Deficiency

B12 deficiency impairs DNA synthesis and can produce:

Megaloblastic macrocytic anaemia.

Blood film may show:

Macro-ovalocytes.

Hypersegmented neutrophils.

14. Neurological Features of B12 Deficiency

Unlike isolated folate deficiency, B12 deficiency can cause significant:

Neurological disease.

Features include:

Peripheral neuropathy.

Loss of vibration sensation.

Loss of proprioception.

Sensory ataxia.

Spastic weakness.

Subacute Combined Degeneration

Severe B12 deficiency may cause:

Subacute combined degeneration of the spinal cord.

This predominantly affects:

Posterior columns

and

Corticospinal tracts.

Therefore:

B12 DEFICIENCY → MACROCYTIC ANAEMIA + NEUROLOGICAL DEFICITS.

15. Vitamin C Deficiency

Vitamin C – ascorbic acid is essential for normal:

Collagen synthesis.

It is also important for wound healing and enhances:

Non-haem iron absorption.

Humans cannot synthesise sufficient vitamin C and therefore depend on:

Dietary intake.

Cause of Vitamin C Deficiency

The major cause is:

Inadequate dietary intake.

Risk increases with:

Severe dietary restriction.

Malnutrition.

Alcohol misuse with poor diet.

Extreme food selectivity.

16. Scurvy

Vitamin C deficiency causes:

Scurvy.

Defective collagen formation leads to:

Fragile blood vessels and connective tissue abnormalities.

Clinical Features of Scurvy

Features include:

Swollen or bleeding gums.

Easy bruising.

Petechiae or perifollicular haemorrhage.

Poor wound healing.

Joint or bone pain.

Fatigue.

Therefore:

VITAMIN C DEFICIENCY → SCURVY → BLEEDING GUMS + BRUISING + POOR WOUND HEALING.

17. Vitamin D Deficiency

Vitamin D is essential for normal:

Calcium and phosphate homeostasis

and

Bone mineralisation.

Its active form is:

1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D – calcitriol.

Causes of Vitamin D Deficiency

The original notes include:

Renal failure

and

Dietary deficiency.

Important additional causes include:

Reduced sunlight exposure.

Fat malabsorption.

Cholestatic disease.

Severe liver disease.

18. Vitamin D and Chronic Kidney Disease

Advanced CKD does not simply cause a nutritional vitamin D deficiency.

The kidney normally converts 25-hydroxyvitamin D into:

Active calcitriol

through:

1α-hydroxylase.

In CKD:

↓ Functional renal mass

↓

↓ Calcitriol production

↓

↓ Intestinal calcium absorption

↓

Secondary hyperparathyroidism

↓

CKD-mineral and bone disorder.

Therefore the original term “renal failure → vitamin D deficiency” is directionally useful but physiologically simplified.

19. Rickets

Vitamin D deficiency in children causes:

Rickets.

Because growing bones are affected, manifestations can include:

Bowed legs.

Widened wrists.

Rachitic rosary.

Growth impairment.

20. Osteomalacia

In adults, defective mineralisation causes:

Osteomalacia.

Patients may develop:

Diffuse bone pain.

Proximal muscle weakness.

Fragility or insufficiency fractures.

Therefore:

VITAMIN D DEFICIENCY → RICKETS IN CHILDREN, OSTEOMALACIA IN ADULTS.

21. Vitamin E Deficiency

Vitamin E – tocopherol is an important:

Lipid-soluble antioxidant.

It protects cell membranes against:

Oxidative damage.

Causes of Vitamin E Deficiency

The original notes correctly include:

Fat malabsorption

and

Abetalipoproteinaemia.

Because vitamin E is fat-soluble, deficiency occurs particularly in disorders involving:

Chronic fat malabsorption.

22. Abetalipoproteinaemia

Abetalipoproteinaemia impairs the formation and transport of:

ApoB-containing lipoproteins.

This results in severe malabsorption and transport abnormalities involving:

Fat-soluble vitamins, particularly vitamin E.

23. Neurological Features of Vitamin E Deficiency

Vitamin E deficiency can cause:

Peripheral neuropathy.

Ataxia.

Loss of vibration and proprioception.

Hyporeflexia.

Spinocerebellar dysfunction.

Therefore the original description:

Spinocerebellar degeneration

captures an important manifestation but does not represent the full neurological picture.

Other Features

Vitamin E deficiency may also cause:

Haemolytic anaemia, particularly in susceptible patients.

A useful memory association is:

VITAMIN E DEFICIENCY → NEUROLOGICAL DYSFUNCTION + HAEMOLYSIS.

24. Vitamin K Deficiency

Vitamin K is required for normal activation of several:

Coagulation factors.

It acts as a cofactor for:

γ-carboxylation

of vitamin K-dependent proteins.

Vitamin K-Dependent Factors

The major vitamin K-dependent coagulation factors are:

II, VII, IX and X.

Vitamin K is also required for:

Protein C

and

Protein S.

25. Causes of Vitamin K Deficiency

The original notes correctly include:

Biliary obstruction

and

Antibiotic therapy.

Other causes include:

Fat malabsorption.

Poor dietary intake in susceptible patients.

Neonatal deficiency.

26. Biliary Obstruction and Vitamin K

Vitamin K is:

Fat-soluble.

Normal absorption therefore requires adequate:

Bile salts.

In biliary obstruction, reduced bile delivery to the intestine impairs fat absorption.

Therefore:

BILIARY OBSTRUCTION → ↓ VITAMIN K ABSORPTION → BLEEDING TENDENCY.

27. Antibiotics and Vitamin K

Prolonged broad-spectrum antibiotic treatment can reduce:

Intestinal bacterial contribution to vitamin K availability.

This becomes more important when combined with:

Poor nutrition

or

Malabsorption.

28. Consequences of Vitamin K Deficiency

Vitamin K deficiency impairs coagulation and produces:

Bleeding tendency.

Possible manifestations include:

Easy bruising.

Mucosal bleeding.

GI bleeding.

Haemorrhage in severe cases.

Laboratory testing commonly shows early prolongation of:

Prothrombin time – PT/INR, because factor VII has a relatively short half-life.

29. Fat-Soluble Vitamins – Note Form

Vitamin A:

Deficiency → night blindness, xerophthalmia, Bitot spots, keratomalacia.

Vitamin D:

Deficiency/impaired activation → defective bone mineralisation.

Children → rickets.

Adults → osteomalacia.

Vitamin E:

Deficiency → neuropathy, ataxia, spinocerebellar dysfunction ± haemolysis.

Vitamin K:

Deficiency → impaired coagulation and bleeding.

30. Water-Soluble Vitamins – Note Form

B1 – Thiamine:

Dry beriberi → neuropathy.

Wet beriberi → high-output heart failure.

Wernicke encephalopathy → confusion + ataxia + ocular abnormalities.

Korsakoff syndrome → severe memory impairment/confabulation.

B2 – Riboflavin:

Glossitis.

Angular stomatitis/cheilitis.

B3 – Niacin:

Pellagra.

Dermatitis + diarrhoea + dementia + death.

B6 – Pyridoxine:

Peripheral neuropathy.

Glossitis.

Sideroblastic anaemia.

Classic drug association → isoniazid.

B12 – Cobalamin:

Megaloblastic anaemia.

Peripheral neuropathy.

Subacute combined degeneration.

Vitamin C:

Scurvy.

Bleeding gums.

Bruising.

Poor wound healing.

31. Important Corrections and Additions

The original vitamin A section is correct, but an important additional classic finding is:

BITOT SPOTS.

For vitamin B1, Wernicke encephalopathy and Korsakoff syndrome are related but clinically distinct:

WERNICKE = ACUTE NEUROLOGICAL EMERGENCY.

KORSAKOFF = CHRONIC AMNESTIC SYNDROME.

For niacin, remember the classic:

4 Ds → DERMATITIS + DIARRHOEA + DEMENTIA + DEATH.

For vitamin B6, an important additional manifestation is:

SIDEROBLASTIC ANAEMIA.

For vitamin B12, the key distinction from folate deficiency is:

B12 DEFICIENCY CAN CAUSE NEUROLOGICAL DAMAGE.

For vitamin D, advanced CKD particularly causes:

IMPAIRED ACTIVATION OF VITAMIN D TO CALCITRIOL, contributing to secondary hyperparathyroidism and CKD-mineral and bone disorder.

For vitamin E, the consequences extend beyond spinocerebellar degeneration and include:

PERIPHERAL NEUROPATHY + ATAXIA ± HAEMOLYTIC ANAEMIA.

For vitamin K, the key mechanism is failure of normal activation of:

FACTORS II, VII, IX AND X + PROTEINS C AND S.

Key Clinical Pattern

For rapid recall:

A → EYES → NIGHT BLINDNESS / XEROPHTHALMIA.

B1 → BRAIN + NERVES + HEART → WERNICKE / BERIBERI.

B2 → MOUTH → GLOSSITIS + ANGULAR CHEILITIS.

B3 → 4 Ds → DERMATITIS + DIARRHOEA + DEMENTIA + DEATH.

B6 → ISONIAZID → NEUROPATHY ± SIDEROBLASTIC ANAEMIA.

B12 → BLOOD + SPINAL CORD → MEGALOBLASTIC ANAEMIA + SUBACUTE COMBINED DEGENERATION.

C → COLLAGEN → SCURVY + BLEEDING GUMS + POOR WOUND HEALING.

D → BONE → RICKETS / OSTEOMALACIA.

E → NEUROLOGICAL DYSFUNCTION ± HAEMOLYSIS.

K → KOAGULATION → BLEEDING.

And remember the fat-soluble vitamins simply as:

A – D – E – K.

Medicine – Porphyria

Porphyrias are a group of uncommon metabolic disorders caused by abnormalities in the haem biosynthesis pathway. Most porphyrias result from inherited deficiency of a specific enzyme involved in haem production, leading to accumulation of particular haem precursors or porphyrins.

The clinical features depend on which intermediate accumulates and where it accumulates, so different porphyrias may predominantly cause acute neurovisceral symptoms, photosensitive skin disease, or both.

1. Haem Synthesis and Porphyria

Haem is synthesised through a multistep biochemical pathway occurring partly in the:

Mitochondria

and partly in the:

Cytoplasm.

Each step requires a specific enzyme.

A deficiency in one of these enzymes causes substances produced before the blocked step to accumulate.

Therefore:

ENZYME DEFECT → ACCUMULATION OF HAEM PRECURSORS → PORPHYRIA.

2. Porphyrins Versus Porphyrin Precursors

The original description of:

“Overproduction of intermediates – porphyrins”

is broadly correct but can be made more precise.

Depending on the particular porphyria, the accumulated substances may include:

5-Aminolaevulinic acid – ALA.

Porphobilinogen – PBG.

Porphyrinogens.

Porphyrins.

The acute neurological porphyrias are particularly associated with increased:

ALA and PBG.

3. Classification of Porphyrias

Porphyrias can be classified according to their major clinical presentation.

Acute porphyrias predominantly cause:

Neurovisceral attacks.

Cutaneous porphyrias predominantly cause:

Photosensitivity and skin lesions.

Some porphyrias can produce:

Both neurological and cutaneous manifestations.

4. Acute Intermittent Porphyria

One of the most important acute hepatic porphyrias is:

Acute intermittent porphyria – AIP.

It classically presents with recurrent attacks of:

Severe abdominal pain + neurological or psychiatric symptoms + autonomic disturbance.

A key feature is:

Absence of photosensitive skin disease.

5. Inheritance of AIP

AIP is inherited in an:

Autosomal dominant – AD

pattern.

However, clinical penetrance is:

Low.

This means that many people carrying the pathogenic variant never develop a clinical attack.

Therefore:

INHERITED MUTATION DOES NOT NECESSARILY MEAN SYMPTOMATIC DISEASE.

6. Enzyme Defect in AIP

The deficient enzyme is:

Porphobilinogen deaminase.

The modern enzyme name is:

Hydroxymethylbilane synthase – HMBS.

Therefore:

AIP = HMBS / PORPHOBILINOGEN DEAMINASE DEFICIENCY.

7. Site of AIP Abnormality

AIP is primarily a:

Hepatic porphyria.

Reduced HMBS activity increases production and accumulation of upstream haem precursors, especially:

ALA

and

PBG.

These compounds are responsible for much of the acute neurovisceral toxicity.

8. Severe Abdominal Pain

The most characteristic presenting symptom of an acute AIP attack is:

Severe abdominal pain.

The pain is often:

Diffuse.

It can be severe despite relatively few objective abdominal findings.

9. Abdominal Examination

A useful clinical clue is:

Severe abdominal pain with little or no peritoneal irritation.

The abdomen may be relatively soft despite intense pain.

This sometimes leads patients to undergo extensive surgical investigations before the correct diagnosis is recognised.

10. Nausea and Vomiting

Acute attacks commonly produce gastrointestinal symptoms such as:

Nausea.

Vomiting.

Constipation.

Abdominal distension may also occur.

Constipation is often more characteristic than diarrhoea.

11. Neuropsychiatric Features

AIP can produce a wide range of:

Neurological and psychiatric manifestations.

These include:

Anxiety.

Agitation.

Insomnia.

Depression.

Confusion.

Hallucinations.

Psychosis.

Seizures.

Therefore:

ABDOMINAL PAIN + PSYCHIATRIC/NEUROLOGICAL FEATURES → THINK ACUTE PORPHYRIA.

12. Autonomic Dysfunction

Acute porphyria commonly affects the:

Autonomic nervous system.

This explains several findings in the original notes.

Typical features include:

Tachycardia.

Hypertension.

Sweating.

Tremor.

Autonomic gastrointestinal disturbance.

13. Hypertension

Hypertension may occur during an acute attack because of:

Autonomic overactivity.

Blood pressure may fluctuate substantially during severe attacks.

Therefore:

ABDOMINAL PAIN + TACHYCARDIA + HYPERTENSION

is an important acute porphyria pattern.

14. Tachycardia

Persistent:

Sinus tachycardia

is common during acute attacks.

It reflects autonomic disturbance and may accompany:

Hypertension, anxiety and abdominal pain.

15. Motor Polyneuropathy

The original notes correctly include:

Motor polyneuropathy.

Severe attacks can produce a predominantly:

Motor axonal neuropathy.

Weakness often begins proximally and can progress rapidly.

16. Severe Neuromuscular Disease

Progressive neuropathy may cause:

Limb weakness.

Reduced reflexes.

Bulbar weakness.

Respiratory muscle weakness.

In severe cases:

Respiratory failure

can occur.

This makes severe acute porphyria potentially life-threatening.

17. Sensory Symptoms

Although motor abnormalities are often most striking, patients may also develop:

Neuropathic pain.

Paraesthesia.

Sensory abnormalities.

However, motor neuropathy is especially important in severe attacks.

18. Seizures

Seizures can occur during AIP.

They may result from:

Direct neurological involvement

or from metabolic disturbances such as:

Hyponatraemia.

Treatment requires caution because several traditional antiseizure medications can induce hepatic enzymes and potentially worsen porphyria.

19. Hyponatraemia

An important feature not included in the original notes is:

Hyponatraemia.

It is common in acute porphyria and may be severe.

Possible mechanisms include:

SIADH.

Vomiting.

Abnormal renal sodium handling.

20. Why Hyponatraemia Matters

Severe hyponatraemia can contribute to:

Confusion.

Seizures.

Reduced consciousness.

Therefore serum electrolytes should be checked during suspected acute attacks.

21. Urine Colour

During an acute attack, urinary porphyrin precursors may cause urine to become:

Reddish-brown or dark.

Fresh urine may not initially look very abnormal but can darken after exposure to:

Air and light.

This is a useful classical clue, although it is not present in every patient.

22. Absence of Photosensitivity in AIP

A very important feature of AIP is:

No characteristic photosensitive skin lesions.

Therefore:

AIP = ACUTE NEUROVISCERAL PORPHYRIA WITHOUT PHOTOSENSITIVITY.

Other porphyrias may cause both neurovisceral and cutaneous disease, but AIP typically does not.

23. Precipitating Factors

AIP attacks usually occur when hepatic haem synthesis is increased.

This increases activity of:

ALA synthase 1 – ALAS1,

the rate-limiting enzyme of hepatic haem synthesis.

When downstream HMBS activity is deficient, increasing pathway activity results in greater accumulation of:

ALA and PBG.

24. Hepatic Enzyme-Inducing Drugs

The original notes correctly state that attacks can be precipitated by:

Hepatic enzyme-inducing drugs.

These drugs increase hepatic haem demand and may stimulate:

ALAS1 activity.

Examples historically associated with acute porphyria include certain:

Barbiturates.

Older anticonvulsants.

Some hormones and other medications.

Because drug safety varies, suspected porphyria should prompt checking a dedicated porphyria drug-safety resource rather than relying only on memorised lists.

25. Other Precipitants

Other important triggers include:

Fasting.

Very low-calorie dieting.

Alcohol.

Infection.

Physiological stress.

Hormonal changes, particularly progesterone-related menstrual influences.

Therefore attacks may occur without exposure to a medication.

26. Why Fasting Triggers Porphyria

Carbohydrate restriction and fasting stimulate hepatic metabolic pathways that increase:

ALAS1 activity.

This increases haem precursor production.

Therefore prolonged fasting can precipitate:

Acute porphyric attacks.

27. Diagnosis During an Acute Attack

The most useful initial biochemical investigation during suspected AIP is measurement of:

Urinary porphobilinogen – PBG.

During an acute attack, urinary:

PBG is markedly elevated.

Urinary:

ALA

is also elevated.

28. Urine PBG

Therefore a classic diagnostic sequence is:

Severe unexplained abdominal pain + neurological/autonomic symptoms

↓

Measure urine PBG

↓

Markedly elevated PBG → strongly supports acute porphyria.

Additional biochemical and genetic testing can then define the specific porphyria.

29. Genetic Testing

Once biochemical evidence supports the diagnosis, genetic testing can identify a pathogenic variant in:

HMBS.

This can also assist:

Family counselling

and

Testing of relatives.

Because penetrance is low, finding a mutation does not necessarily mean the person will develop attacks.

30. Treatment of an Acute Attack

Management begins with:

Stopping potential precipitating drugs or other triggers.

The patient should also receive supportive treatment for:

Pain.

Vomiting.

Electrolyte abnormalities.

Hypertension.

Neurological complications.

31. Intravenous Haem

For significant acute attacks, treatment with intravenous:

Haem arginate or other appropriate haem preparations depending on region

suppresses hepatic:

ALAS1 activity.

This reduces production of:

ALA and PBG.

Therefore haem therapy directly targets the biochemical overactivity responsible for the attack.

32. Carbohydrate Administration

Carbohydrate loading, usually with:

Glucose,

can suppress hepatic ALAS1 to some degree.

It may be useful in:

Mild attacks

or while definitive haem therapy is being arranged.

However, significant attacks generally require more specific therapy.

33. Givosiran

For selected patients with recurrent acute hepatic porphyria, modern preventive therapy includes:

Givosiran.

This is an RNA-interference therapy that reduces hepatic:

ALAS1 expression.

It can reduce the frequency of recurrent attacks in appropriately selected patients.

34. Long-Term Management

Long-term management includes:

Avoiding unsafe drugs.

Avoiding prolonged fasting.

Maintaining adequate nutrition.

Managing hormonal triggers when relevant.

Educating the patient about early symptoms.

Patients with recurrent disease may require specialist porphyria management.

35. AIP – Note Form

Inheritance:

Autosomal dominant.

Low penetrance.

Enzyme deficiency:

Porphobilinogen deaminase.

Modern name:

Hydroxymethylbilane synthase – HMBS.

Accumulated precursors:

ALA.

PBG.

Main clinical pattern:

Severe abdominal pain.

Vomiting.

Constipation.

Neuropsychiatric symptoms.

Tachycardia.

Hypertension.

Motor neuropathy.

Possible seizures.

Possible hyponatraemia.

Skin findings:

No characteristic photosensitivity.

Triggers:

Porphyrinogenic drugs.

Fasting.

Alcohol.

Infection.

Stress.

Hormonal changes.

Diagnosis during attack:

Markedly increased urinary PBG ± ALA.

Treatment:

Remove trigger.

Supportive care.

Correct electrolytes.

IV haem for significant attacks.

Glucose in selected mild situations.

Givosiran for selected recurrent disease.

36. Important Corrections to the Original Notes

The original statement:

“Overproduction of intermediates – porphyrins”

is better expanded to:

ACCUMULATION OF HAEM PRECURSORS OR PORPHYRINS, DEPENDING ON THE ENZYME DEFECT.

In AIP, the especially important accumulated substances are:

ALA AND PBG.

The enzyme described as:

Porphobilinogen deaminase

is now commonly called:

HYDROXYMETHYLBILANE SYNTHASE – HMBS.

AIP is autosomal dominant, but:

PENETRANCE IS LOW.

Therefore many genetically affected individuals remain asymptomatic.

An important feature missing from the original list is:

HYPONATRAEMIA, sometimes related to SIADH.

Another high-yield distinction is:

AIP DOES NOT CHARACTERISTICALLY CAUSE PHOTOSENSITIVITY.

Key Clinical Pattern

The classic acute intermittent porphyria picture is:

SEVERE ABDOMINAL PAIN

plus

NEUROPSYCHIATRIC FEATURES

plus

AUTONOMIC DISTURBANCE – TACHYCARDIA/HYPERTENSION

±

MOTOR NEUROPATHY

±

HYPONATRAEMIA.

Think:

AIP = AUTOSOMAL DOMINANT HMBS DEFICIENCY → ↑ ALA + ↑ PBG.

And remember:

ABDOMINAL PAIN + PSYCHIATRIC/NEUROLOGICAL FEATURES + DARKENING URINE + NO PHOTOSENSITIVITY → THINK ACUTE INTERMITTENT PORPHYRIA.lick here to start customizing

Medicine – Tumour Markers

Tumour markers are substances produced either by tumour cells or by the body in response to malignancy. They may be detected in the blood, urine or tissues and can help with diagnosis, prognosis, monitoring treatment response and detecting recurrence.

However, an important principle is:

Tumour markers are usually not specific enough to diagnose cancer on their own.

Many can also be elevated in:

Benign disease.

Inflammation.

Pregnancy.

Liver disease.

Therefore they must always be interpreted together with the clinical picture, imaging and histology where appropriate.

1. Alpha-Fetoprotein – AFP

Alpha-fetoprotein – AFP is normally produced during fetal development, particularly by the:

Fetal liver and yolk sac.

After birth, serum AFP concentrations normally fall to very low levels.

AFP and Hepatocellular Carcinoma

AFP may be elevated in:

Hepatocellular carcinoma – HCC.

It can therefore be used as a supportive marker in patients with suspected liver malignancy.

However:

A normal AFP does not exclude HCC.

Some hepatocellular carcinomas do not produce significant AFP.

AFP and Germ Cell Tumours

AFP may also be elevated in certain:

Germ cell tumours.

It is particularly associated with:

Yolk sac tumours

and tumours containing:

Embryonal carcinoma components.

Important Germ Cell Point

AFP is not elevated in a pure:

Seminoma.

Therefore:

SEMINOMA + ELEVATED AFP → THINK NON-SEMINOMATOUS COMPONENT.

This is a useful examination point.

Non-Malignant AFP Elevation

AFP can also rise in:

Pregnancy.

Chronic hepatitis.

Cirrhosis.

Liver regeneration.

Therefore an elevated AFP is not automatically diagnostic of cancer.

2. CA-125

CA-125 is most strongly associated with:

Epithelial ovarian cancer.

It is particularly useful for:

Monitoring treatment response

and

Detecting possible recurrence

in patients with known ovarian cancer.

Limitations of CA-125

CA-125 is not specific for ovarian malignancy.

It can also increase in benign conditions involving the peritoneum or reproductive tract.

Examples include:

Endometriosis.

Menstruation.

Pregnancy.

Pelvic inflammatory disease.

Benign ovarian disease.

Liver disease with ascites.

Clinical Use

Therefore:

CA-125 IS MORE USEFUL FOR MONITORING THAN FOR DIAGNOSING OVARIAN CANCER BY ITSELF.

It may also contribute to risk assessment in a patient with an:

Adnexal or ovarian mass.

3. CA 15-3

CA 15-3 is associated mainly with:

Breast cancer.

It reflects a circulating form of the:

MUC1 glycoprotein.

Clinical Use of CA 15-3

CA 15-3 is most useful in selected patients with established, particularly:

Advanced or metastatic breast cancer.

It may help assess:

Treatment response

or

Disease progression.

Limitation

CA 15-3 is not sufficiently sensitive or specific to be used as a general screening test for:

Early breast cancer.

Therefore routine breast cancer diagnosis still depends on:

Clinical examination.

Breast imaging.

Biopsy.

4. CA 19-9

CA 19-9 is associated particularly with:

Pancreatic adenocarcinoma

and

Cholangiocarcinoma.

Pancreatic Cancer

In a patient with known pancreatic cancer, CA 19-9 may help with:

Assessing disease burden.

Monitoring response to treatment.

Detecting progression or recurrence.

However, it should not be used alone to diagnose pancreatic cancer.

Cholangiocarcinoma

CA 19-9 may also be elevated in:

Bile duct cancer – cholangiocarcinoma.

Again, interpretation requires correlation with:

Imaging and clinical findings.

Benign Causes of Raised CA 19-9

CA 19-9 may also rise in benign biliary disease, particularly:

Obstructive jaundice.

Cholangitis.

Pancreatitis.

Therefore significant biliary obstruction can produce a high CA 19-9 even without malignancy.

Important Limitation

Some individuals do not express the Lewis antigen required for producing CA 19-9.

Therefore they may have:

Very low or undetectable CA 19-9

even in the presence of pancreatic cancer.

5. Carcinoembryonic Antigen – CEA

Carcinoembryonic antigen – CEA is classically associated with:

Colorectal cancer.

It is particularly useful after diagnosis and treatment.

CEA in Colorectal Cancer

CEA may be used to:

Establish a baseline level before treatment.

Monitor response to therapy.

Monitor for recurrence after treatment.

A rising CEA after colorectal cancer treatment may suggest:

Recurrent or metastatic disease.

CEA Is Not a Screening Test

CEA lacks adequate sensitivity and specificity for routine population screening.

Therefore:

CEA IS NOT USED AS A STAND-ALONE SCREENING TEST FOR COLORECTAL CANCER.

Non-Malignant Causes of Raised CEA

CEA may also be elevated in:

Smoking.

Inflammatory bowel disease.

Pancreatitis.

Chronic liver disease.

Other malignancies can also increase CEA, including some cancers of the:

Pancreas.

Stomach.

Lung.

Breast.

6. Human Chorionic Gonadotrophin – hCG

Human chorionic gonadotrophin – hCG is normally produced during pregnancy by:

Placental trophoblastic tissue.

It is also an important marker for several:

Germ cell tumours.

hCG and Germ Cell Tumours

hCG may be elevated in:

Choriocarcinoma.

Embryonal carcinoma.

Some:

Seminomas

may also produce hCG, usually through the presence of syncytiotrophoblastic cells.

hCG in Testicular Cancer

hCG is often measured together with:

AFP

and

LDH

when evaluating and monitoring:

Testicular germ cell tumours.

These markers can contribute to:

Staging.

Risk classification.

Monitoring treatment response.

Detecting recurrence.

hCG and Trophoblastic Disease

hCG is also very important in:

Gestational trophoblastic disease.

Examples include:

Hydatidiform mole

and

Gestational choriocarcinoma.

Serial hCG measurements are particularly useful for monitoring whether abnormal trophoblastic tissue persists after treatment.

7. Prostate-Specific Antigen – PSA

Prostate-specific antigen – PSA is produced by epithelial cells of the:

Prostate gland.

PSA is organ-specific but:

Not cancer-specific.

This distinction is important.

PSA and Prostate Cancer

PSA may be elevated in:

Prostate cancer.

It is used in different clinical contexts for:

Risk assessment.

Supporting investigation.

Monitoring response after treatment.

Detecting biochemical recurrence.

Benign Causes of Elevated PSA

PSA may also rise in:

Benign prostatic hyperplasia – BPH.

Prostatitis.

Urinary retention.

Some recent prostate manipulations or procedures may also affect PSA.

Therefore:

RAISED PSA ≠ PROSTATE CANCER AUTOMATICALLY.

8. AFP – Note Form

Main malignant associations:

Hepatocellular carcinoma.

Non-seminomatous germ cell tumours.

Especially yolk sac tumour.

Important point:

Pure seminoma should not produce AFP.

Non-malignant elevation:

Pregnancy.

Hepatitis.

Cirrhosis.

9. CA-125 – Note Form

Main association:

Epithelial ovarian cancer.

Main use:

Monitoring treatment and recurrence.

Can also rise in:

Endometriosis.

Pregnancy.

Menstruation.

Pelvic inflammation.

Ascites.

10. CA 15-3 – Note Form

Main association:

Breast cancer.

Main use:

Monitoring selected patients with advanced or metastatic disease.

Not suitable for:

Routine screening for early breast cancer.

11. CA 19-9 – Note Form

Main associations:

Pancreatic adenocarcinoma.

Cholangiocarcinoma.

Can also rise in:

Obstructive jaundice.

Cholangitis.

Pancreatitis.

Main use:

Monitoring established disease rather than diagnosing cancer alone.

12. CEA – Note Form

Main association:

Colorectal cancer.

Main use:

Monitoring after treatment.

Detecting possible recurrence.

Can also rise in:

Smoking.

Inflammatory bowel disease.

Pancreatitis.

Liver disease.

Other gastrointestinal malignancies.

13. hCG – Note Form

Main malignant associations:

Germ cell tumours.

Choriocarcinoma.

Gestational trophoblastic disease.

Often combined with:

AFP.

LDH.

for testicular germ cell tumours.

14. PSA – Note Form

Main association:

Prostate cancer.

Also elevated in:

Benign prostatic hyperplasia.

Prostatitis.

Urinary retention.

Important point:

PSA is:

PROSTATE-SPECIFIC BUT NOT PROSTATE-CANCER-SPECIFIC.

15. Tumour Markers Are Mainly Used for Monitoring

A major misconception is that tumour markers are primarily diagnostic tests.

In reality, many are more useful for:

Monitoring known cancer.

Assessing response to treatment.

Detecting recurrence.

Providing prognostic information.

They usually cannot replace:

Imaging

or

Histological diagnosis.

16. Tumour Markers and Screening

Most tumour markers are unsuitable for general cancer screening because benign disease can raise them and some cancers do not produce them.

For example:

CEA is not a population screening test for colorectal cancer.

CA-125 alone is not an ovarian cancer screening test for the general population.

CA 15-3 is not used to screen routinely for breast cancer.

17. Important Corrections and Clarifications

The original association:

AFP → hepatocellular carcinoma + germ cell tumours

is correct, but AFP is particularly useful for:

NON-SEMINOMATOUS GERM CELL TUMOURS.

The original:

CA-125 → ovarian cancer

is correct, but CA-125 can also rise in many benign conditions, especially:

ENDOMETRIOSIS AND PERITONEAL INFLAMMATION.

The original:

CA 15-3 → breast cancer

is correct, but its main role is:

MONITORING ESTABLISHED ADVANCED DISEASE, not screening.

The original:

CA 19-9 → pancreatic cancer/cholangiocarcinoma

is correct, but marked elevation can also occur in:

BENIGN BILIARY OBSTRUCTION.

The original:

CEA → colorectal cancer

is correct, but its strongest routine role is:

POST-TREATMENT MONITORING AND RECURRENCE SURVEILLANCE.

The original:

hCG → germ cell tumours

is correct, and it is also a major marker of:

GESTATIONAL TROPHOBLASTIC DISEASE.

The original:

PSA → prostate cancer

needs an important qualification:

PSA IS NOT CANCER-SPECIFIC.

BPH and prostatitis can also increase it.

Key Clinical Pattern

For rapid recall:

AFP → HEPATOCELLULAR CARCINOMA + NON-SEMINOMATOUS GERM CELL TUMOUR.

CA-125 → OVARIAN CANCER.

CA 15-3 → BREAST CANCER.

CA 19-9 → PANCREATIC CANCER + CHOLANGIOCARCINOMA.

CEA → COLORECTAL CANCER.

hCG → GERM CELL TUMOURS + TROPHOBLASTIC DISEASE.

PSA → PROSTATE DISEASE / PROSTATE CANCER.

And remember:

TUMOUR MARKERS SUPPORT DIAGNOSIS BUT RARELY DIAGNOSE CANCER BY THEMSELVES.

Their greatest value is usually in:

MONITORING TREATMENT RESPONSE + DETECTING RECURRENCE + ASSESSING DISEASE COURSE.

Medicine – Physiology of the Renal Tubule

The renal tubule modifies the glomerular filtrate by selectively reabsorbing substances that the body needs and secreting substances that must be eliminated. Different nephron segments have distinct transport functions, and many diuretics act at specific tubular sites.

The major functional regions are the proximal tubule, loop of Henle, distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct.

1. Proximal Tubule

The proximal convoluted tubule – PCT performs the largest proportion of tubular reabsorption.

The original figure of:

50% sodium reabsorbed

is somewhat low.

In modern physiology, approximately:

65–70% of filtered sodium and water

are reabsorbed in the proximal tubule.

Water follows sodium almost proportionately, so proximal tubular reabsorption is largely:

Iso-osmotic.

2. Sodium Reabsorption in the Proximal Tubule

Sodium enters proximal tubular cells through several transport systems, including:

Na⁺/H⁺ exchange.

Na⁺-glucose cotransport.

Na⁺-amino acid cotransport.

The basolateral:

Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase

then pumps sodium from the tubular cell into the interstitium.

Therefore:

PCT → REABSORBS ABOUT TWO-THIRDS OF FILTERED Na⁺ AND WATER.

3. Bicarbonate Reabsorption

The proximal tubule reabsorbs most filtered:

Bicarbonate – HCO₃⁻.

Approximately:

80–90%

of filtered bicarbonate is reclaimed here.

This process depends importantly on:

Hydrogen ion secretion

and

Carbonic anhydrase.

4. Mechanism of Bicarbonate Reabsorption

Tubular cells secrete:

H⁺

into the lumen, largely through the:

Na⁺/H⁺ exchanger.

Hydrogen combines with filtered bicarbonate:

H⁺ + HCO₃⁻ → H₂CO₃.

Carbonic anhydrase facilitates conversion to:

CO₂ + H₂O.

CO₂ enters the tubular cell, where bicarbonate is regenerated and transported back into blood.

Therefore:

PCT = MAJOR SITE OF BICARBONATE RECLAMATION.

5. Carbonic Anhydrase Inhibitors

Because bicarbonate reabsorption depends on carbonic anhydrase, drugs such as:

Acetazolamide

reduce proximal bicarbonate reabsorption.

This causes:

Bicarbonaturia.

Alkaline urine initially.

Metabolic acidosis.

Acetazolamide is therefore a:

Proximal tubular diuretic.

6. Glucose and Amino Acid Reabsorption

The proximal tubule normally reabsorbs almost all filtered:

Glucose

and

Amino acids.

Glucose reabsorption occurs through sodium-glucose cotransporters, particularly:

SGLT2

in the early proximal tubule.

7. SGLT2 Inhibitors

Drugs such as:

Dapagliflozin

and

Empagliflozin

inhibit SGLT2.

This reduces proximal glucose and sodium reabsorption and causes:

Glycosuria

with mild:

Natriuresis and osmotic diuresis.

These drugs are important in modern treatment of:

Type 2 diabetes, CKD and heart failure.

8. Phosphate Reabsorption

The proximal tubule is also the major site of:

Phosphate reabsorption.

Filtered phosphate is normally reabsorbed through:

Sodium-phosphate cotransporters.

9. Effect of PTH on Phosphate

The original notes correctly associate phosphate handling with:

Parathyroid hormone – PTH.

However, PTH does not increase phosphate reabsorption.

Instead, PTH:

DECREASES proximal tubular phosphate reabsorption.

Therefore:

PTH → PHOSPHATURIA → ↑ URINARY PHOSPHATE EXCRETION.

This is an important correction.

10. Urate Handling

The proximal tubule has a major role in handling:

Urate.

Urate undergoes a complex combination of:

Filtration.

Reabsorption.

Secretion.

Post-secretory reabsorption.

Therefore the final urinary urate concentration reflects several proximal tubular transport processes rather than simple secretion alone.

11. Creatinine Secretion

Most creatinine is eliminated by:

Glomerular filtration.

However, a small amount is also:

Secreted by the proximal tubule.

This is why creatinine clearance slightly:

Overestimates true GFR.

12. Drugs Affecting Creatinine Secretion

Certain medications inhibit proximal tubular creatinine secretion.

Important examples include:

Trimethoprim.

Cimetidine.

These may produce:

A modest increase in serum creatinine without a true fall in GFR.

13. Other Proximal Tubule Functions

The proximal tubule also reabsorbs much of the filtered:

Potassium.

Calcium.

Phosphate.

Urea.

It also reabsorbs nearly all filtered:

Small proteins and peptides

through endocytic mechanisms.

Therefore proximal tubular dysfunction can produce:

Glucosuria without hyperglycaemia.

Phosphaturia.

Bicarbonaturia.

Aminoaciduria.

Tubular proteinuria.

14. Fanconi Syndrome

Generalized dysfunction of the proximal tubule is called:

Fanconi syndrome.

It can cause urinary loss of:

Glucose.

Phosphate.

Bicarbonate.

Amino acids.

Uric acid.

This may result in:

Proximal type 2 renal tubular acidosis.

15. Loop of Henle

The loop of Henle is essential for generating the:

Medullary concentration gradient.

This gradient allows the kidney to produce concentrated urine when:

ADH is present.

16. Descending Limb

The thin descending limb is highly permeable to:

Water.

However, it is relatively less permeable to electrolytes.

As tubular fluid descends into the increasingly hypertonic medulla:

Water leaves the tubule.

The tubular fluid therefore becomes:

More concentrated.

17. Thick Ascending Limb

The thick ascending limb behaves very differently.

It is essentially:

Impermeable to water.

But it actively reabsorbs:

Na⁺, K⁺ and Cl⁻.

18. NKCC2 Cotransporter

The major transporter in the thick ascending limb is:

Na⁺-K⁺-2Cl⁻ cotransporter – NKCC2.

This reabsorbs:

1 Na⁺ + 1 K⁺ + 2 Cl⁻

from the tubular lumen.

19. Sodium Reabsorption in the Loop

The original notes state:

40% sodium reabsorption.

This is higher than the modern estimate for the loop itself.

Approximately:

20–25% of filtered sodium

is reabsorbed in the:

Thick ascending limb.

Therefore:

PCT ≈ 65–70%.

THICK ASCENDING LIMB ≈ 20–25%.

DISTAL TUBULE ≈ 5%.

The remainder is fine-tuned in the distal nephron and collecting duct.

20. Diluting Segment

Because the thick ascending limb removes solute without allowing water to follow, it dilutes the tubular fluid.

It is therefore called a:

Diluting segment.

At the same time, NaCl accumulation in the medullary interstitium contributes to the:

Corticomedullary osmotic gradient.

21. Countercurrent Multiplication

The interaction between:

Descending limb water permeability

and

Ascending limb active NaCl transport

creates:

Countercurrent multiplication.

This establishes a progressively hyperosmotic environment toward the:

Inner medulla.

22. Medullary Concentration Gradient

The medullary gradient is produced mainly by:

NaCl reabsorption from the thick ascending limb

and

Urea recycling in the inner medulla.

This gradient is essential for:

ADH-dependent water reabsorption in the collecting duct.

23. Loop Diuretics

The original notes correctly identify:

Furosemide

as a loop diuretic.

Other examples include:

Bumetanide.

Torsemide.

24. Mechanism of Loop Diuretics

Loop diuretics inhibit:

NKCC2

in the thick ascending limb.

This reduces:

NaCl reabsorption.

As a result, more sodium remains in the tubular lumen and water follows.

Therefore:

LOOP DIURETIC → NKCC2 BLOCKADE → POWERFUL NATRIURESIS AND DIURESIS.

25. Calcium and Magnesium in the Loop

The lumen-positive electrical potential in the thick ascending limb promotes paracellular reabsorption of:

Calcium

and

Magnesium.

Loop diuretics reduce this potential.

Therefore they increase urinary excretion of:

Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺.

A useful memory point is:

LOOPS LOSE CALCIUM.

26. Distal Convoluted Tubule

The distal convoluted tubule performs further fine control of:

Sodium, chloride and calcium handling.

Approximately:

5% of filtered sodium

is reabsorbed here.

This part of the original notes is therefore broadly correct.

27. Sodium-Chloride Cotransporter

The major sodium transporter in the early distal convoluted tubule is:

Na⁺-Cl⁻ cotransporter – NCC.

This transporter is inhibited by:

Thiazide diuretics.

28. Thiazide Diuretics

Examples include:

Hydrochlorothiazide.

Bendroflumethiazide.

Chlortalidone/chlorthalidone.

Indapamide is thiazide-like.

These drugs inhibit:

NCC

and therefore reduce:

NaCl reabsorption.

29. Calcium and Thiazides

Thiazides have an important effect on calcium:

They increase renal calcium reabsorption.

Therefore urinary calcium decreases.

A useful contrast is:

LOOP DIURETICS → ↑ URINARY Ca²⁺.

THIAZIDES → ↓ URINARY Ca²⁺.

30. PTH in the Distal Tubule

PTH promotes:

Calcium reabsorption

in the distal nephron.

Thus the distal tubule contributes importantly to:

Fine regulation of calcium balance.

31. Where Does Spironolactone Act?

The original notes place:

Spironolactone

under the distal tubule.

This requires refinement.

Spironolactone acts primarily on:

Mineralocorticoid receptors

in principal cells of the:

Late distal tubule and cortical collecting duct.

Therefore it is more accurate to place it in the:

Aldosterone-sensitive distal nephron.

32. Spironolactone Mechanism

Spironolactone antagonises:

Aldosterone receptors.

This reduces expression and activity of sodium transport mechanisms including:

ENaC

and the:

Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase.

Therefore:

Less sodium is reabsorbed

and

less potassium is secreted.

33. Potassium-Sparing Effect

Because spironolactone decreases potassium secretion, it is classified as a:

Potassium-sparing diuretic.

A major adverse effect is therefore:

Hyperkalaemia.

34. Collecting Duct

The collecting duct provides the final regulation of:

Water.

Sodium.

Potassium.

Hydrogen ions.

It is strongly influenced by:

ADH

and

Aldosterone.

35. Sodium Reabsorption in the Collecting Duct

Only a relatively small proportion of the originally filtered sodium reaches this region.

Approximately:

A few percent

of filtered sodium is reabsorbed in the late distal nephron and collecting system.

Although quantitatively small, this segment is physiologically important because it allows:

Precise hormonal regulation of sodium balance.

36. ENaC

Principal cells reabsorb sodium through:

Epithelial sodium channels – ENaC.

These channels are stimulated by:

Aldosterone.

Therefore:

ALDOSTERONE → ↑ ENaC ACTIVITY → ↑ Na⁺ REABSORPTION.

37. Potassium Secretion

Principal cells also secrete:

Potassium.

Aldosterone increases potassium secretion.

Therefore:

ALDOSTERONE → Na⁺ RETENTION + K⁺ LOSS.

38. Amiloride

The potassium-sparing diuretic:

Amiloride

acts directly by blocking:

ENaC.

This differs from spironolactone, which blocks:

The aldosterone receptor.

39. Hydrogen Ion Secretion

The collecting duct plays a major role in final urinary:

Acidification.

Specialised cells called:

α-intercalated cells

secrete:

Hydrogen ions.

40. Alpha-Intercalated Cells

α-intercalated cells use pumps including:

H⁺-ATPase

to secrete hydrogen into the tubular lumen.

At the same time, bicarbonate is returned to:

The blood.

Therefore these cells help defend against:

Metabolic acidosis.

41. Minimum Urine pH

Through distal hydrogen secretion, normal kidneys can reduce urinary pH to approximately:

4.5.

Failure of distal acid secretion occurs in:

Distal type 1 renal tubular acidosis.

42. ADH Action

The original notes correctly identify the collecting duct as the major site of:

ADH action.

ADH binds:

V₂ receptors

on collecting-duct principal cells.

43. Aquaporin-2

V₂ receptor stimulation leads to insertion of:

Aquaporin-2 water channels

into the apical membrane.

Water can then move out of the collecting duct into the hyperosmotic medullary interstitium.

Therefore:

ADH → AQUAPORIN-2 → ↑ WATER REABSORPTION → CONCENTRATED URINE.

44. What Happens Without ADH?

Without ADH, the collecting duct remains relatively:

Impermeable to water.

Therefore large amounts of dilute urine are excreted.

This is the physiological basis of:

Diabetes insipidus.

45. What Happens With Excess ADH?

Excessive ADH causes excessive water retention.

This occurs in:

SIADH.

The result is:

Dilutional hyponatraemia.

46. Segment-by-Segment Note Form

Proximal tubule:

Reabsorbs approximately 65–70% Na⁺ and water.

Reabsorbs approximately 80–90% bicarbonate.

Reabsorbs nearly all glucose and amino acids.

Major phosphate reabsorption site.

PTH decreases phosphate reabsorption.

Small amount of creatinine secretion.

Complex urate reabsorption and secretion.

Acetazolamide acts here.

SGLT2 inhibitors act here.

Loop of Henle:

Descending limb → water reabsorption.

Thick ascending limb → Na⁺/K⁺/2Cl⁻ reabsorption through NKCC2.

Thick ascending limb impermeable to water.

Approximately 20–25% Na⁺ reabsorbed.

Generates medullary concentration gradient.

Loop diuretics such as furosemide act here.

Distal convoluted tubule:

Approximately 5% NaCl reabsorbed.

Na⁺-Cl⁻ cotransporter – NCC.

Thiazide diuretics act here.

Increases calcium reabsorption.

PTH promotes distal calcium reabsorption.

Late distal tubule / collecting duct:

Fine control of Na⁺ and K⁺.

Aldosterone stimulates sodium reabsorption and potassium secretion.

Spironolactone blocks mineralocorticoid receptors.

Amiloride blocks ENaC.

Intercalated cells regulate acid–base balance.

ADH controls water permeability through aquaporin-2.

47. Important Corrections to the Original Notes

The original:

“50% sodium reabsorbed in the proximal tubule”

is better approximated as:

ABOUT 65–70%.

The original:

“40% sodium reabsorbed in the loop of Henle”

is too high for modern standard physiology.

The thick ascending limb reabsorbs approximately:

20–25%.

The statement:

“Phosphate reabsorption (PTH)”

could be misleading.

PTH actually:

DECREASES PROXIMAL PHOSPHATE REABSORPTION → INCREASES PHOSPHATE EXCRETION.

Spironolactone should not be thought of as acting mainly on the early distal convoluted tubule.

It acts at:

MINERALOCORTICOID RECEPTORS IN THE LATE DISTAL TUBULE AND COLLECTING DUCT.

48. Diuretic Sites of Action

A useful nephron sequence is:

PROXIMAL TUBULE → ACETAZOLAMIDE + SGLT2 INHIBITORS.

↓

THICK ASCENDING LOOP → LOOP DIURETICS.

↓

DISTAL CONVOLUTED TUBULE → THIAZIDES.

↓

COLLECTING DUCT/LATE DISTAL NEPHRON → SPIRONOLACTONE + AMILORIDE.

Key Clinical Pattern

Remember the nephron from proximal to distal:

PCT → BULK REABSORPTION.

LOOP → BUILDS MEDULLARY GRADIENT.

DCT → FINE-TUNES NaCl AND CALCIUM.

COLLECTING DUCT → HORMONAL FINE CONTROL OF Na⁺, K⁺, H⁺ AND WATER.

And remember the key transporters:

PCT → SGLT2 + Na⁺/H⁺ exchange.

THICK ASCENDING LOOP → NKCC2.

DCT → NCC.

COLLECTING DUCT → ENaC + AQUAPORIN-2.

Finally, the high-yield diuretic sequence is:

ACETAZOLAMIDE → PCT.

FUROSEMIDE → LOOP/NKCC2.

THIAZIDE → DCT/NCC.

SPIRONOLACTONE → ALDOSTERONE RECEPTOR.

AMILORIDE → ENaC.