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​Symptoms and Signs – Differential Diagnosis of Sinus Bradycardia
• Acute myocardial ischemia and infarction
• Class I antiarrhythmic agents (e.g., procainamide), class III antiarrhythmic agents (amiodarone, sotalol), clonidine, lithium carbonate
• Degenerative processes (e.g., Lev’s disease, Lenègre’s disease): medications, b-blockers, some calcium channel blockers (diltiazem, verapamil), digoxin (when vagal tone is high)
• High vagal tone (e.g., athletes)
• Idiopathic
• Right or left circumflex coronary artery occlusion or spasm
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​Symptoms and Signs – Differential Diagnosis of Brain Neoplasm
• encephalomyelitis
• Stroke
• Primary central nervous system lymphoma
• Metastatic tumors
• Demyelinating disease: multiple sclerosis, postinfectious
• Brain abscess
• Abscess/parasitic cyst
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​Symptoms and Signs – Differential Diagnosis of Breast Inflammatory Lesion
• Trauma
• Necrosis or infarction (anticoagulant therapy, pregnancy)
• Mastitis (Staphylococcus aureus, beta-hemolytic streptococcus)
• Granuloma (TB, fungal)
• Foreign body (sutures, breast implants)
• Fat necrosis post biopsy
• Breast malignant neoplasm
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​Symptoms and Signs – Differential Diagnosis of Breast Mass
• Benign tumors (fibroadenoma, papilloma)
• Breast abscess
• Duct ectasia
• Fat necrosis
• Fibrocystic breasts
• Hematoma
• Malignant neoplasm
• Mammary adenosis
• Mastitis (acute bacterial mastitis, chronic mastitis)
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​Symptoms and Signs – Differential Diagnosis of Breath Odor
• Sweet, fruity: diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA), starvation ketosis
• Musty fish, clover: fetor hepaticus (hepatic failure)
• Halitosis: tonsillitis, gingivitis, respiratory infections, Vincent’s angina, gastroesophageal reflux, Helicobacter pylori infection, Zenker’s diverticulum
• Foul, putrid: nasal/sinus pathology (infection, foreign body, cancer), respiratory infections (empyema, lung abscess, bronchiectasis)
• Foul, feculent: intestinal obstruction/diverticulum
• Fishy, stale: uremia (trimethylamines)
• Cinnamon: pulmonary TB
• Ammonia-like: uremia (ammonia)
• Achalasia
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​Symptoms and Signs – Differential Diagnosis of Noisy Breathing 
• Acquired abnormality (at every level of the airway): nasal polyps, hypertrophied adenoids or tonsils, foreign body, intraluminal tumors, bronchiectasis
• Compression from outside of the airway: esophageal cysts or foreign body, neoplasms, lymphadenopathy
• Congenital malformation and abnormality: vascular rings, laryngeal webs, laryngomalacia, tracheomalacia, hemangiomas within the upper airway, stenoses within the upper airway, cystic fibrosis
• Infection: upper respiratory infection, peritonsillar abscess, retropharyngeal abscess, epiglottitis, laryngitis, tracheitis, bronchitis, bronchiolitis
• Irritants and allergens: hyperactive airway, asthma (reactive airway disease), rhinitis, angioneurotic edema
• Neurogenic disorder: vocal cord paralysis
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​Symptoms and Signs – Differential Diagnosis of Bronchiectasis
• TB
• Lung carcinoma
• Interstitial fibrosis
• Foreign body aspiration
• Cystic fibrosis
• Chronic lung abscess
• Chronic bronchitis or chronic sinusitis
• Asthma
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​Symptoms and Signs – Differential Diagnosis of  Acute Bronchitis 
• Allergic aspergillosis
• Aspiration
• Asthma
• Bronchiolitis
• Bronchogenic neoplasm
• Congestive heart failure (CHF) (in elderly patients)
• Cough secondary to medications
• Cystic fibrosis
• Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD)
• Influenza
• Neoplasm (elderly patients)
• Pharyngitis
• Pneumonia
• Sinusitis
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Kembara Xtra 

Facts about medicine and its subtopic such as anatomy, physiology, biochemistry, pharmacology, medicine, pediatrics, psychiatry, obstetrics and gynecology and surgery.