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KembaraXtra-Psychology - associationism
Associationism is the doctrine that mental elements (ideas) become linked through principles of association. John Locke (1632–1704) first suggested it explicitly by adding a chapter on the association of ideas in 1700 to later editions of his Essay (first published 1690). The doctrine was developed by James Mill (1773–1836) and John Stuart Mill (1806–73), who distinguished elementary sensations (from sensory stimulation) from ideas (thoughts/memories without stimulation) and argued that ideas naturally associate: complex ideas emerge by linking simpler ones, and once associations are established, experiencing one idea tends to trigger the other (for example, redness bringing to mind warmth). James Mill emphasized a single contiguity law (association through closeness in time/space), while John Stuart Mill added similarity and frequency laws and proposed “mental chemistry,” where combinations yield complex ideas that differ qualitatively from their parts. Alexander Bain (1818–1903) later extended association to behavioural actions linking with ideas. Associationism relates to grouping laws and is often compared with connectionism.
Associationism is the doctrine that mental elements (ideas) become linked through principles of association. John Locke (1632–1704) first suggested it explicitly by adding a chapter on the association of ideas in 1700 to later editions of his Essay (first published 1690). The doctrine was developed by James Mill (1773–1836) and John Stuart Mill (1806–73), who distinguished elementary sensations (from sensory stimulation) from ideas (thoughts/memories without stimulation) and argued that ideas naturally associate: complex ideas emerge by linking simpler ones, and once associations are established, experiencing one idea tends to trigger the other (for example, redness bringing to mind warmth). James Mill emphasized a single contiguity law (association through closeness in time/space), while John Stuart Mill added similarity and frequency laws and proposed “mental chemistry,” where combinations yield complex ideas that differ qualitatively from their parts. Alexander Bain (1818–1903) later extended association to behavioural actions linking with ideas. Associationism relates to grouping laws and is often compared with connectionism.
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KembaraXtra-Psychology - association fibre
Association fibres are nerve fibres that connect one gyrus to another within the same cerebral hemisphere, either within a lobe or between lobes; US spelling is association fiber.
Association fibres are nerve fibres that connect one gyrus to another within the same cerebral hemisphere, either within a lobe or between lobes; US spelling is association fiber.
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KembaraXtra-Psychology - association area
Association area can mean (a) a tertiary projection area, or (b) more loosely, any cortical region not dedicated to primary sensory or motor functions (or even not to primary/secondary sensory-motor functions), though usage varies and is not fully consistent; it is also called an association centre or part of the association cortex.
Association area can mean (a) a tertiary projection area, or (b) more loosely, any cortical region not dedicated to primary sensory or motor functions (or even not to primary/secondary sensory-motor functions), though usage varies and is not fully consistent; it is also called an association centre or part of the association cortex.
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KembaraXtra-Psychology - assimilation–contrast theory
Assimilation–contrast theory explains judgment and attitude change by treating a person’s initial stance as an anchor: communications that are only mildly discrepant and fall within the latitude of acceptance tend to be assimilated (judgment shifts toward the message), while highly discrepant communications may produce little change (latitude of neutrality) or even a contrast effect (latitude of rejection), where judgment shifts away from the message. High ego involvement is associated with a narrow latitude of acceptance and a wide latitude of rejection, and the reverse is typical for low ego involvement. A key implication is that strong, ego-involving attitudes often become polarized in response to many communications. The theory was formulated in 1961 by Muzafer Sherif (1906–88) and Carl I. Hovland (1912–61) and is linked to concepts such as the boomerang effect, discrepancy effects, contrast effects, and the false-consensus effect, and is compared with adaptation-level theory.
Assimilation–contrast theory explains judgment and attitude change by treating a person’s initial stance as an anchor: communications that are only mildly discrepant and fall within the latitude of acceptance tend to be assimilated (judgment shifts toward the message), while highly discrepant communications may produce little change (latitude of neutrality) or even a contrast effect (latitude of rejection), where judgment shifts away from the message. High ego involvement is associated with a narrow latitude of acceptance and a wide latitude of rejection, and the reverse is typical for low ego involvement. A key implication is that strong, ego-involving attitudes often become polarized in response to many communications. The theory was formulated in 1961 by Muzafer Sherif (1906–88) and Carl I. Hovland (1912–61) and is linked to concepts such as the boomerang effect, discrepancy effects, contrast effects, and the false-consensus effect, and is compared with adaptation-level theory.
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KembaraXtra-Psychology - assimilation
Assimilation has several meanings: (1) the general process of absorbing information or substances, or making things more similar; (2) in Piaget’s theory, a form of adaptation where new experiences are fitted into existing mental structures, such as an infant treating a new toy like familiar graspable objects by shaking or mouthing it; (3) in phonetics, a sound change where one speech sound becomes more like a neighbouring sound, such as English plural /s/ being voiced to [z] after voiced consonants (dogs) but remaining [s] after voiceless consonants (cats), a pattern explored via tools like the wug test; (4) in persuasion and social judgment, reducing the gap between one’s attitude and a message/source; (5) in memory, distortion that makes a memory more like existing memories, also found in serial reproduction and rumour transmission and related to levelling and sharpening; and (6) in perception, a tendency for perceived properties of objects/images to shift toward characteristics of adjacent stimuli (as in colour assimilation). The verb is assimilate, and assimilative describes what involves assimilation; the word comes from Latin roots meaning “to make similar.”
Assimilation has several meanings: (1) the general process of absorbing information or substances, or making things more similar; (2) in Piaget’s theory, a form of adaptation where new experiences are fitted into existing mental structures, such as an infant treating a new toy like familiar graspable objects by shaking or mouthing it; (3) in phonetics, a sound change where one speech sound becomes more like a neighbouring sound, such as English plural /s/ being voiced to [z] after voiced consonants (dogs) but remaining [s] after voiceless consonants (cats), a pattern explored via tools like the wug test; (4) in persuasion and social judgment, reducing the gap between one’s attitude and a message/source; (5) in memory, distortion that makes a memory more like existing memories, also found in serial reproduction and rumour transmission and related to levelling and sharpening; and (6) in perception, a tendency for perceived properties of objects/images to shift toward characteristics of adjacent stimuli (as in colour assimilation). The verb is assimilate, and assimilative describes what involves assimilation; the word comes from Latin roots meaning “to make similar.”
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KembaraXtra-Psychology - assertiveness training
Assertiveness training (also called assertion training) is a counselling/psychotherapy approach developed in 1949 by Andrew Salter (1914–96) in which people practice expressing needs, wants, and feelings openly, honestly, and directly in a manner that encourages others to take them seriously and respond appropriately; it is linked with modelling and social skills training.
Assertiveness training (also called assertion training) is a counselling/psychotherapy approach developed in 1949 by Andrew Salter (1914–96) in which people practice expressing needs, wants, and feelings openly, honestly, and directly in a manner that encourages others to take them seriously and respond appropriately; it is linked with modelling and social skills training.
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KembaraXtra-Psychology - assembled phonology
Assembled phonology is the pronunciation of a word constructed by applying learned rules about the typical sounds of letters and letter sequences. This approach breaks down for irregular spellings in English (for example yacht), but in more regular orthographies such as German or Spanish it can reliably generate correct pronunciation; it contrasts with addressed phonology.
Assembled phonology is the pronunciation of a word constructed by applying learned rules about the typical sounds of letters and letter sequences. This approach breaks down for irregular spellings in English (for example yacht), but in more regular orthographies such as German or Spanish it can reliably generate correct pronunciation; it contrasts with addressed phonology.
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KembaraXtra-Psychology - A–S Reaction Study
The A–S Reaction Study is an early personality inventory designed to assess ascendance versus submissiveness in everyday social relations, created by Gordon W. Allport (1897–1967) and Floyd H. Allport (1890–1978) and published in their 1928 book of the same name; it should not be confused with the A–S scale that measures anti-Semitism.
The A–S Reaction Study is an early personality inventory designed to assess ascendance versus submissiveness in everyday social relations, created by Gordon W. Allport (1897–1967) and Floyd H. Allport (1890–1978) and published in their 1928 book of the same name; it should not be confused with the A–S scale that measures anti-Semitism.
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KembaraXtra-Psychology - A/S ratio
The A/S ratio (association/sensation ratio) is an index proposed by Donald O. Hebb (1904–85) to compare mammalian intelligence by dividing the brain volume devoted to association areas by the brain volume devoted to sensory and motor regions, and it can be compared with measures like the encephalization quotient and progression index.
The A/S ratio (association/sensation ratio) is an index proposed by Donald O. Hebb (1904–85) to compare mammalian intelligence by dividing the brain volume devoted to association areas by the brain volume devoted to sensory and motor regions, and it can be compared with measures like the encephalization quotient and progression index.
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KembaraXtra-Psychology - aspirin
Aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid) is a white crystalline compound originally linked historically to willow bark (Salix alba), identified and first synthesized in 1898 by the German chemist Felix Hoffmann (1868–1946) at Bayer (I. G. Farben). Used widely as an analgesic, it consists of an acetyl group attached to a salicylic acid group, and its strong anti-inflammatory and fever-reducing effects come from inhibiting prostaglandin synthesis by acetylating a site in the prostaglandin-producing enzyme (prostaglandin H₂ synthase/PGHS), blocking the channel through which arachidonic acid from the endoplasmic reticulum is converted into prostaglandins. It also inhibits PGHS forms that help protect the stomach lining. Overdose signs can include gastrointestinal bleeding, dizziness, sweating, thirst, tinnitus, visual disturbances, confusion, drowsiness, breathlessness, nausea, vomiting, coma, and death. Its formula is CH₃COOC₆H₄COOH, and it is associated with ototoxic effects; the name originates from Bayer’s proprietary naming.
Aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid) is a white crystalline compound originally linked historically to willow bark (Salix alba), identified and first synthesized in 1898 by the German chemist Felix Hoffmann (1868–1946) at Bayer (I. G. Farben). Used widely as an analgesic, it consists of an acetyl group attached to a salicylic acid group, and its strong anti-inflammatory and fever-reducing effects come from inhibiting prostaglandin synthesis by acetylating a site in the prostaglandin-producing enzyme (prostaglandin H₂ synthase/PGHS), blocking the channel through which arachidonic acid from the endoplasmic reticulum is converted into prostaglandins. It also inhibits PGHS forms that help protect the stomach lining. Overdose signs can include gastrointestinal bleeding, dizziness, sweating, thirst, tinnitus, visual disturbances, confusion, drowsiness, breathlessness, nausea, vomiting, coma, and death. Its formula is CH₃COOC₆H₄COOH, and it is associated with ototoxic effects; the name originates from Bayer’s proprietary naming.
