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Pathology – Chronic Viral Hepatitis
Definition of chronic viral hepatitis: Hepatitis B or C infection of the liver that lasts longer than six months.
The study of epidemiology • Approximately 3% of people globally are afflicted with chronic HCV. • Chronic HBV has greater regional variance, with infection rates as high as 15% in parts of Asia and China and being less common in western nations.
Immunopathogenesis • When the immune system is unable to eradicate the virus after infection, chronic viral hepatitis results. About 10% of individuals do not recover from an HBV infection. About 90% of individuals are unable to recover from an HCV infection.
Presentation: Usually asymptomatic, it is discovered by chance when liver function tests show abnormalities. • Many patients do not show up until they have ascites and severe cirrhosis.
The study of serology • Serum HBsAg and anti-HBcAg antibodies are indicators of chronic HBV. • Serum anti-HCV antibodies and HCV RNA detected by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) are indicators of chronic HCV.
The macroscopy • Fibrosis may cause the liver to feel a little firm. The study of histopathology • The majority of the cells that make up portal inflammation are lymphocytes. • The extension of the portal inflammatory infiltrate into the hepatocytes at the limiting plate linked to hepatocyte deterioration is known as interface hepatitis (also known as "piecemeal necrosis"). • In contrast to acute viral hepatitis, when it is the predominant site, lobular inflammation is typically localized and modest in chronic viral hepatitis. • One indicator of the disease's severity is fibrosis. Cirrhosis is the result of extensive bridging fibrosis through the liver. Keep in mind that chronic liver injury can result from a variety of reasons and manifest all of these alterations.
However, there may be indications of a viral aetiology, such as portal lymphoid aggregates in hepatitis C and "ground glass" hepatocytes in hepatitis B. The degree of fibrosis found during a liver biopsy is a major determinant of prognosis. • In hepatitis C, viral genotype is also significant. • Hepatocellular carcinoma is more likely, especially in cas
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Pathology - Anal pathology
Hemorrhoids • Abnormally expanded and bulging anal cushions. • Highly widespread. • Thought to arise from the disturbance of standard suspensory mechanisms caused by persistent straining during feces. • Causes pronounced red rectal bleeding and discomfort. • Microscopic analysis of removed hemorrhoids demonstrates significantly dilated blood vessels with overlying hyperplastic squamous epithelium.
Anal tags are polypoid protrusions of the anal mucosa and submucosa. They are distinct from hemorrhoids, although they are occasionally misdiagnosed as such. • A microscopic structure comprising a fibrovascular core surrounded by squamous epithelium. The fibrovascular core lacks the typical ectatic vessels linked to hemorrhoids.
Anal fissure: A rupture in the mucosal lining of the lower anal canal, commonly located posteriorly along the midline. The origin is unclear; however, chronic infection may lead to reduced mucosal flexibility, resulting in a tear with the passage of firm feces. • Typically presents with severe discomfort.
Anorectal abscess • A purulent collection in the deep perianal tissue. • A consequence of infection in a deep anal gland. • Marked by perianal erythema, edema, and discomfort.
Anorectal fistula: An abnormal epithelial-lined passage connecting the anal canal to the perianal skin. It usually develops from an infection in an anal gland that extends to the skin surface. Multiple perianal fistulas may also suggest Crohn's disease. Anal cancer is uncommon and frequently associated with HPV infection. The predominant kind is squamous cell carcinoma, which arises from areas of squamous dysplasia known as anal intraepithelial neoplasia (AIN).
Hemorrhoids • Abnormally expanded and bulging anal cushions. • Highly widespread. • Thought to arise from the disturbance of standard suspensory mechanisms caused by persistent straining during feces. • Causes pronounced red rectal bleeding and discomfort. • Microscopic analysis of removed hemorrhoids demonstrates significantly dilated blood vessels with overlying hyperplastic squamous epithelium.
Anal tags are polypoid protrusions of the anal mucosa and submucosa. They are distinct from hemorrhoids, although they are occasionally misdiagnosed as such. • A microscopic structure comprising a fibrovascular core surrounded by squamous epithelium. The fibrovascular core lacks the typical ectatic vessels linked to hemorrhoids.
Anal fissure: A rupture in the mucosal lining of the lower anal canal, commonly located posteriorly along the midline. The origin is unclear; however, chronic infection may lead to reduced mucosal flexibility, resulting in a tear with the passage of firm feces. • Typically presents with severe discomfort.
Anorectal abscess • A purulent collection in the deep perianal tissue. • A consequence of infection in a deep anal gland. • Marked by perianal erythema, edema, and discomfort.
Anorectal fistula: An abnormal epithelial-lined passage connecting the anal canal to the perianal skin. It usually develops from an infection in an anal gland that extends to the skin surface. Multiple perianal fistulas may also suggest Crohn's disease. Anal cancer is uncommon and frequently associated with HPV infection. The predominant kind is squamous cell carcinoma, which arises from areas of squamous dysplasia known as anal intraepithelial neoplasia (AIN).
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Diagnostic Tests – Persantine Thallium
What Is Persantine Thallium Testing?
Persantine thallium testing is a type of pharmacologic stress test used to evaluate myocardial perfusion in patients who cannot perform adequate physical exercise. Instead of using a treadmill or bicycle to increase the heart’s oxygen demand, this test uses medication to mimic the physiologic effects of exercise. It is noninvasive and helps determine whether areas of the heart receive sufficient blood flow under conditions that simulate stress.
How Is the Test Performed?
The test involves two major components: Persantine (dipyridamole) and thallium imaging.
Persantine is a phosphodiesterase inhibitor that causes coronary artery vasodilation, increasing blood flow to healthy myocardium. Diseased or stenotic coronary arteries, however, do not dilate as effectively, creating a “steal phenomenon” in which more blood flows to normal areas and less to ischemic areas.
After Persantine is administered, thallium, a radioactive tracer, is injected. Normal cardiac muscle takes up thallium readily, whereas ischemic or infarcted areas absorb significantly less. Imaging with a gamma camera then reveals patterns of perfusion, highlighting areas of reduced blood flow.
When Should You Choose Persantine Thallium Testing?
Persantine thallium is the correct diagnostic choice when a patient cannot exercise adequately for a standard treadmill stress test—but still requires evaluation of possible ischemic heart disease. This includes individuals with orthopedic limitations, neurologic conditions, deconditioning, or severe physical frailty.
It is also useful in preoperative cardiac risk assessment for patients with chest pain, when there is uncertainty about whether the pain represents ischemia.
When Is Persantine Thallium the Wrong Answer?
This test should NOT be selected in patients with asthma, COPD, or emphysema, because Persantine can provoke bronchospasm and worsen respiratory symptoms.
Additionally, any form of stress testing—including pharmacologic testing—is contraindicated in cases of acute myocardial infarction or unstable angina, where stressing the heart is unsafe and inappropriate.
What Is the Alternative Choice?
If Persantine cannot be used—especially due to respiratory disease—the preferred alternative is a dobutamine stress echocardiogram. Dobutamine increases myocardial oxygen demand by raising heart rate and contractility, functioning as a safe pharmacologic stress agent for patients who cannot tolerate Persantine.
What Is the Most Accurate Diagnostic Test?
Regardless of the stress modality used, the single most accurate test of myocardial perfusion and coronary anatomy is coronary angiography. It provides direct visualization of the coronary vessels, allowing clinicians to identify and quantify stenoses with precision.
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Pathology - Diverticular Disease
Definition: Colonic mucosa herniation through the big bowel's circular muscle layer. The great majority of instances occur in the sigmoid colon. Epidemiology • Extremely common. Mostly an illness of patients over the age of 60. A low-fiber, high-meat diet is the primary risk factor.
Pathogenesis • Firm stools demand greater intraluminal pressure to propel. • High intraluminal pressure pushes pouches of colonic mucosa through a weak spot in the muscular layer, allowing blood vessels to nourish the mucosa.
Presentation: Intermittent stomach pain, changed bowel habits, and iron deficiency anaemia. 2 These symptoms may closely resemble colorectal malignancy. • Acute diverticulitis causes considerable pain in the left iliac fossa. • Erosion of a big submucosal artery may result in significant rectal bleeding. During macroscopy, diverticula can be detected herniating between the sigmoid colon's taenia. • The circular muscle layer is thicker and has redundant mucosal folds that protrude into the lumen. • In acute diverticulitis, an inflamed mass may surround the diverticulum. • Diverticular strictures constrict the gut lumen, resembling stenosing cancer.
Histopathology: Diverticula are found herniating through a thicker circular muscle layer. The diverticulum is separated from the pericolic fat by a thin layer of muscle. Acute diverticulitis is characterized by acute inflammation and pericolic abscess development.
Prognosis: • Acute diverticulitis can lead to pericolic abscess formation, fistula formation, and free perforation. • Free perforation can result in widespread peritonitis, which can be deadly in frail elderly individuals.
Definition: Colonic mucosa herniation through the big bowel's circular muscle layer. The great majority of instances occur in the sigmoid colon. Epidemiology • Extremely common. Mostly an illness of patients over the age of 60. A low-fiber, high-meat diet is the primary risk factor.
Pathogenesis • Firm stools demand greater intraluminal pressure to propel. • High intraluminal pressure pushes pouches of colonic mucosa through a weak spot in the muscular layer, allowing blood vessels to nourish the mucosa.
Presentation: Intermittent stomach pain, changed bowel habits, and iron deficiency anaemia. 2 These symptoms may closely resemble colorectal malignancy. • Acute diverticulitis causes considerable pain in the left iliac fossa. • Erosion of a big submucosal artery may result in significant rectal bleeding. During macroscopy, diverticula can be detected herniating between the sigmoid colon's taenia. • The circular muscle layer is thicker and has redundant mucosal folds that protrude into the lumen. • In acute diverticulitis, an inflamed mass may surround the diverticulum. • Diverticular strictures constrict the gut lumen, resembling stenosing cancer.
Histopathology: Diverticula are found herniating through a thicker circular muscle layer. The diverticulum is separated from the pericolic fat by a thin layer of muscle. Acute diverticulitis is characterized by acute inflammation and pericolic abscess development.
Prognosis: • Acute diverticulitis can lead to pericolic abscess formation, fistula formation, and free perforation. • Free perforation can result in widespread peritonitis, which can be deadly in frail elderly individuals.
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Pathology - Microscopic colitis
Definition • A chronic variant of colitis marked by persistent watery diarrhea, normal or almost normal colonoscopy findings, and microscopic indications of colonic inflammation. Categories Two forms are identified: lymphocytic colitis and collagenous colitis. Lymphocytic colitis has an incidence of 3 cases per 100,000 individuals.
• Equal incidence of sex.
The average age of onset is 50 years
. • Significant correlation with celiac disease. Mucosal biopsy results reveal an elevated quantity of plasma cells in the lamina propria and an increased presence of intraepithelial lymphocytes.
• The majority of patients exhibit a positive response to pharmacological treatment. Collagenous colitis • Incidence of 1 to 2 per 100,000 individuals. • Notable preference for women
The average age of onset is 60 years.
• Correlation between NSAIDs and celiac disease. Mucosal biopsy findings reveal subepithelial collagen deposition, an elevated count of plasma cells in the lamina propria, and an increase in intraepithelial lymphocytes. • The majority of patients exhibit a positive response to pharmacological treatment.
Definition • A chronic variant of colitis marked by persistent watery diarrhea, normal or almost normal colonoscopy findings, and microscopic indications of colonic inflammation. Categories Two forms are identified: lymphocytic colitis and collagenous colitis. Lymphocytic colitis has an incidence of 3 cases per 100,000 individuals.
• Equal incidence of sex.
The average age of onset is 50 years
. • Significant correlation with celiac disease. Mucosal biopsy results reveal an elevated quantity of plasma cells in the lamina propria and an increased presence of intraepithelial lymphocytes.
• The majority of patients exhibit a positive response to pharmacological treatment. Collagenous colitis • Incidence of 1 to 2 per 100,000 individuals. • Notable preference for women
The average age of onset is 60 years.
• Correlation between NSAIDs and celiac disease. Mucosal biopsy findings reveal subepithelial collagen deposition, an elevated count of plasma cells in the lamina propria, and an increase in intraepithelial lymphocytes. • The majority of patients exhibit a positive response to pharmacological treatment.
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Pathology – Ulcerative Colitis
Ulcerative colitis is an idiopathic inflammatory bowel illness defined by inflammation confined to the mucosa of the large intestine, invariably involving the rectum and extending proximally in a continuous manner across a variable distance.
Epidemiology: Rare occurrence. • Significant occurrence between the ages of 15 and 25.
Aetiology and Pathogenesis • Believed to result from an aberrant mucosal immune response to luminal microorganisms. The genetic association is less robust than that of Crohn's disease. • Smoking seems to reduce the risk of ulcerative colitis (UC). • An atypical yet frequently validated observation is the preventive influence of appendectomy on the later onset of ulcerative colitis (UC).
Presentation • Recurrent episodes of hematochezia, frequently accompanied by urgency and tenesmus.
Macroscopy • Erythematous mucosa exhibiting a friable, degraded surface accompanied by hemorrhage. Inflamed mucosa may develop polypoid projections (inflammatory polyps). The disease invariably affects the rectum and extends continually to involve a varying extent of the colon.
Histopathology • Biopsies reveal widespread mucosal inflammation accompanied by cryptitis and the production of crypt abscesses. Inflammation is typically more pronounced distally. Resection specimens exhibit widespread inflammation confined to the mucosal layer. Inflammatory polyps may be present. In cases of severe acute ulcerative colitis, inflammation may extend into the submucosa or muscular layers; however, the mucosal layer remains the site of most inflammation.
Prognosis: Generally favorable with intervention. • Elevated risk of colorectal cancer necessitates the recommendation of surveillance colonoscopy several years post-diagnosis. Extragastrointestinal manifestations encompass enteropathic arthropathy, primary sclerosing cholangitis?erythema nodosum,pyoderma gangrenosum,uveitis, and AA amyloidosis.
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Pathology - Colorectal polyps
Hyperplastic polyps are prevalent, predominantly found in the distal colon. • Typically little lesions, less than 1 cm in size, located on the apex of a mucosal fold. Microscopically, they consist of crypts that are dilated and serrated in the superficial region and constricted at the base. • Benign lesions devoid of any potential for development to malignancy. Adenomatous polyps • Prevalent polyps that can manifest throughout the large intestine. • They predominantly manifest sporadically, although are also linked to familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP).
Familial Adenomatous Polyposis (FAP) is a hereditary disorder characterized by the proliferation of many adenomas throughout the colon at an early age, leading to the unavoidable onset of colorectal cancer in the absence of preventive colectomy.
• Neoplastic polyps that contain prevalent mutations of APC, KRAS, and TP53. The polyps exhibit dysplastic glands, characterized by epithelial cells with stratified hyperchromatic nuclei, arranged in intricate tubules or finger-like villous extensions. The dysplasia is classified as low grade or high grade based on the extent of cytological and architectural abnormalities. Approximately 10% of adenomas progress to cancer. The probability of malignant transformation increases with larger polyps, high-grade dysplasia, and a villous architecture.
Sessile serrated adenomas • Recently identified polyps that are often greater than 1 cm and are more frequently located in the right colon. • Genetically, they typically possess mutations in mismatch repair genes. • Microscopically, they exhibit significantly dilated serrated crypts that are broadened at their base. • Correlated with a heightened risk of subsequent colorectal cancer.
Inflammatory polyps • Delicate filiform lesions arise subsequent to any mucosal injury, frequently observed in individuals with inflammatory bowel illness. • Microscopically, they are enveloped by mucosa on both sides, with minimal submucosal tissue present.
Mucosal prolapse • Prolapsed mucosal fragments manifesting as polypoid projections. • May manifest at any location within the large intestine, but is typically observed on the anterior rectal wall or in conjunction with diverticular illness. • May ulcerate and resemble colorectal malignancy. • Microscopically, they have deformed, angulated crypts embedded inside a lamina propria that contains bundles of smooth muscle.
Benign fibroblastic polyps are typically discovered during screening colonoscopy in adults. They appear as bland spindle cell growth in the lamina propria under a microscope. Immunohistochemistry analysis does not reveal a distinct differentiation line for spindle cells.
Leiomyomas are benign smooth muscle tumors that originate from the muscularis mucosae. They are often tiny polyps seen in the distal large bowel and exhibit bland smooth muscle cell bundles under the microscope.
Juvenile polyps • The most frequent colonic polyp in children. • Identified as hamartomatous. • Microscopically, they have dilated and disordered colonic glands in an oedematous stroma. Multiple juvenile polyps may indicate juvenile polyposis, an autosomal dominant disorder caused by germline mutations in SMAD4 or BMPR1A.
Hyperplastic polyps are prevalent, predominantly found in the distal colon. • Typically little lesions, less than 1 cm in size, located on the apex of a mucosal fold. Microscopically, they consist of crypts that are dilated and serrated in the superficial region and constricted at the base. • Benign lesions devoid of any potential for development to malignancy. Adenomatous polyps • Prevalent polyps that can manifest throughout the large intestine. • They predominantly manifest sporadically, although are also linked to familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP).
Familial Adenomatous Polyposis (FAP) is a hereditary disorder characterized by the proliferation of many adenomas throughout the colon at an early age, leading to the unavoidable onset of colorectal cancer in the absence of preventive colectomy.
• Neoplastic polyps that contain prevalent mutations of APC, KRAS, and TP53. The polyps exhibit dysplastic glands, characterized by epithelial cells with stratified hyperchromatic nuclei, arranged in intricate tubules or finger-like villous extensions. The dysplasia is classified as low grade or high grade based on the extent of cytological and architectural abnormalities. Approximately 10% of adenomas progress to cancer. The probability of malignant transformation increases with larger polyps, high-grade dysplasia, and a villous architecture.
Sessile serrated adenomas • Recently identified polyps that are often greater than 1 cm and are more frequently located in the right colon. • Genetically, they typically possess mutations in mismatch repair genes. • Microscopically, they exhibit significantly dilated serrated crypts that are broadened at their base. • Correlated with a heightened risk of subsequent colorectal cancer.
Inflammatory polyps • Delicate filiform lesions arise subsequent to any mucosal injury, frequently observed in individuals with inflammatory bowel illness. • Microscopically, they are enveloped by mucosa on both sides, with minimal submucosal tissue present.
Mucosal prolapse • Prolapsed mucosal fragments manifesting as polypoid projections. • May manifest at any location within the large intestine, but is typically observed on the anterior rectal wall or in conjunction with diverticular illness. • May ulcerate and resemble colorectal malignancy. • Microscopically, they have deformed, angulated crypts embedded inside a lamina propria that contains bundles of smooth muscle.
Benign fibroblastic polyps are typically discovered during screening colonoscopy in adults. They appear as bland spindle cell growth in the lamina propria under a microscope. Immunohistochemistry analysis does not reveal a distinct differentiation line for spindle cells.
Leiomyomas are benign smooth muscle tumors that originate from the muscularis mucosae. They are often tiny polyps seen in the distal large bowel and exhibit bland smooth muscle cell bundles under the microscope.
Juvenile polyps • The most frequent colonic polyp in children. • Identified as hamartomatous. • Microscopically, they have dilated and disordered colonic glands in an oedematous stroma. Multiple juvenile polyps may indicate juvenile polyposis, an autosomal dominant disorder caused by germline mutations in SMAD4 or BMPR1A.
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Pathology - Colorectal carcinoma
Definition: • A malignant epithelial tumor in the colon or rectum.Tumors that penetrate the muscularis mucosae into the submucosa are considered malignant at this site. In contrast, carcinomas at other sites just require a breach of the basement membrane directly beneath the epithelium to be classified as malignant.
Epidemiology: • Third most frequent cancer in the UK, with a lifetime risk of 1 in 16 males and 1 in 20 women. • Second leading cause of cancer-related deaths. A diet high in animal fat and low in fiber, combined with a sedentary lifestyle, increases risk. Idiopathic inflammatory bowel illness (FAP) and hereditary non-polyposis colorectal cancer (HNPCC) are also linked.
Carcinogenesis: • Most cancers develop through a crypt focus (dysplasia in a single crypt), adenomatous polyp, or invasive carcinoma. • Common genetic aberrations include loss of APC, TP53, and SMAD4. • In some tumors, mismatch repair genes are inactivated, resulting in microsatellite instability. Symptoms include gastrointestinal changes, tenesmus, stomach pain, and iron deficiency anemia. Asymptomatic tumors can be detected by screening or surveillance programs.
Macroscopy reveals that tumors typically develop as polypoid lumps in the gut lumen, with surface ulceration. Some tumors in the distal colon cause circumferential stenosing lesions. • The sliced surface shows a whitish tumor mass with poorly defined edges that penetrates the intestinal wall. • Mucinous carcinomas produce large pools of gelatinous material.
Histopathology • Most cancers are adenocarcinomas, which are malignant epithelial tumors with glandular differentiation. • Well-differentiated tumors exhibit extensive tube formation, while poorly differentiated tumors exhibit little gland formation. • Tumors are typically moderately differentiated and include a high amount of necroinfiltrated detritus within glandular gaps, known as 'dirty' necrosis. Mucinous adenocarcinomas are characterized by significant mucin synthesis in around 10% of colonic and 30% of rectal tumors, resulting in malignant cells floating in huge pools of extracellular mucin.
Prognosis: 5-year survival rate around 50%. • Prognostic markers for tumors include stage, vascular invasion, tumor differentiation, and surgical excision. National Health Service (NHS) bowel cancer screening program. • Provides screening every two years to men and women aged 60-69. • People above the age of 70 are not typically invited, but they can request screening. • Eligible patients receive a faecal occult blood test kit at home, with instructions on how to complete the test and send their sample to the nearest laboratory. • Approximately 2% of individuals have a positive result and are recommended to undergo a colonoscopy. • Of those, 50% have a normal colonoscopy, 40% have a polyp, and 10% have cancer.
TNM 7 Pathological Staging of Colorectal Cancers Primary Tumor (T)
pT1: The tumor invades the submucosa. pT2: The tumor invades the muscularis propria. In pT3, tumors penetrate the subserosa or non-peritonealized pericolic or perirectal tissues via the muscularis propria. pT4a: The tumor perforates the visceral peritoneum. pT4b: The tumour immediately invades another organ or structure.
Regional lymph nodes. (N) pN0 indicates no regional lymph node metastasis. pN1a indicates metastases in one regional lymph node. pN1b refers to metastases in two or three regional lymph nodes. pN2a: metastases in 4-6 regional lymph nodes. pN2b: metastases in seven or more regional lymph nodes.
Definition: • A malignant epithelial tumor in the colon or rectum.Tumors that penetrate the muscularis mucosae into the submucosa are considered malignant at this site. In contrast, carcinomas at other sites just require a breach of the basement membrane directly beneath the epithelium to be classified as malignant.
Epidemiology: • Third most frequent cancer in the UK, with a lifetime risk of 1 in 16 males and 1 in 20 women. • Second leading cause of cancer-related deaths. A diet high in animal fat and low in fiber, combined with a sedentary lifestyle, increases risk. Idiopathic inflammatory bowel illness (FAP) and hereditary non-polyposis colorectal cancer (HNPCC) are also linked.
Carcinogenesis: • Most cancers develop through a crypt focus (dysplasia in a single crypt), adenomatous polyp, or invasive carcinoma. • Common genetic aberrations include loss of APC, TP53, and SMAD4. • In some tumors, mismatch repair genes are inactivated, resulting in microsatellite instability. Symptoms include gastrointestinal changes, tenesmus, stomach pain, and iron deficiency anemia. Asymptomatic tumors can be detected by screening or surveillance programs.
Macroscopy reveals that tumors typically develop as polypoid lumps in the gut lumen, with surface ulceration. Some tumors in the distal colon cause circumferential stenosing lesions. • The sliced surface shows a whitish tumor mass with poorly defined edges that penetrates the intestinal wall. • Mucinous carcinomas produce large pools of gelatinous material.
Histopathology • Most cancers are adenocarcinomas, which are malignant epithelial tumors with glandular differentiation. • Well-differentiated tumors exhibit extensive tube formation, while poorly differentiated tumors exhibit little gland formation. • Tumors are typically moderately differentiated and include a high amount of necroinfiltrated detritus within glandular gaps, known as 'dirty' necrosis. Mucinous adenocarcinomas are characterized by significant mucin synthesis in around 10% of colonic and 30% of rectal tumors, resulting in malignant cells floating in huge pools of extracellular mucin.
Prognosis: 5-year survival rate around 50%. • Prognostic markers for tumors include stage, vascular invasion, tumor differentiation, and surgical excision. National Health Service (NHS) bowel cancer screening program. • Provides screening every two years to men and women aged 60-69. • People above the age of 70 are not typically invited, but they can request screening. • Eligible patients receive a faecal occult blood test kit at home, with instructions on how to complete the test and send their sample to the nearest laboratory. • Approximately 2% of individuals have a positive result and are recommended to undergo a colonoscopy. • Of those, 50% have a normal colonoscopy, 40% have a polyp, and 10% have cancer.
TNM 7 Pathological Staging of Colorectal Cancers Primary Tumor (T)
pT1: The tumor invades the submucosa. pT2: The tumor invades the muscularis propria. In pT3, tumors penetrate the subserosa or non-peritonealized pericolic or perirectal tissues via the muscularis propria. pT4a: The tumor perforates the visceral peritoneum. pT4b: The tumour immediately invades another organ or structure.
Regional lymph nodes. (N) pN0 indicates no regional lymph node metastasis. pN1a indicates metastases in one regional lymph node. pN1b refers to metastases in two or three regional lymph nodes. pN2a: metastases in 4-6 regional lymph nodes. pN2b: metastases in seven or more regional lymph nodes.
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Pathology - Acute appendicitis
Definition • An acute inflammatory condition of the appendix caused by blockage. Epidemiology: Peak incidence occurs between the ages of 5 and 15, although it can manifest at any age.
Aetiology • Considered to arise from the occlusion of the appendiceal lumen due to a faecolith, undigested food, or hypertrophied lymphoid tissue.
Pathogenesis: Obstruction of the appendiceal lumen results in a secondary infection within the mucosa, which then disseminates throughout the whole wall of the appendix.
Presentation: Right iliac fossa pain along with fever and malaise. • Numerous cases lack typical characteristics, potentially associated with the specific placement of the appendix within the individual.
Macroscopy • In initial situations where inflammation is restricted to the mucosal layer, the appendix may present as normal. • In advanced cases, the appendix exhibits dilation, and a fibrinopurulent discharge may be observed on the serosal surface.
Histopathology • Initial cases exhibit neutrophils within crypts (crypt abscesses) and erosion of the superficial epithelium. • Neutrophils subsequently infiltrate the lamina propria of the mucosa and accumulate within the lumen of the appendix. • Subsequent cases demonstrate the progression of the acute inflammatory response into the submucosa, muscularis propria, and serosa. Extensive necrosis of the muscularis propria may result in perforation.
Prognosis • The prognosis is favorable, contingent upon the timely execution of an appendectomy. Delayed treatment poses a danger of perforating the inflamed appendix, which may lead to complications such as intra-abdominal abscess formation or widespread peritonitis.
Definition • An acute inflammatory condition of the appendix caused by blockage. Epidemiology: Peak incidence occurs between the ages of 5 and 15, although it can manifest at any age.
Aetiology • Considered to arise from the occlusion of the appendiceal lumen due to a faecolith, undigested food, or hypertrophied lymphoid tissue.
Pathogenesis: Obstruction of the appendiceal lumen results in a secondary infection within the mucosa, which then disseminates throughout the whole wall of the appendix.
Presentation: Right iliac fossa pain along with fever and malaise. • Numerous cases lack typical characteristics, potentially associated with the specific placement of the appendix within the individual.
Macroscopy • In initial situations where inflammation is restricted to the mucosal layer, the appendix may present as normal. • In advanced cases, the appendix exhibits dilation, and a fibrinopurulent discharge may be observed on the serosal surface.
Histopathology • Initial cases exhibit neutrophils within crypts (crypt abscesses) and erosion of the superficial epithelium. • Neutrophils subsequently infiltrate the lamina propria of the mucosa and accumulate within the lumen of the appendix. • Subsequent cases demonstrate the progression of the acute inflammatory response into the submucosa, muscularis propria, and serosa. Extensive necrosis of the muscularis propria may result in perforation.
Prognosis • The prognosis is favorable, contingent upon the timely execution of an appendectomy. Delayed treatment poses a danger of perforating the inflamed appendix, which may lead to complications such as intra-abdominal abscess formation or widespread peritonitis.
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Pathology - Crohn's disease
Definition: An idiopathic inflammatory bowel illness distinguished by multifocal regions of inflammation that can affect any segment of the gastrointestinal system.
Epidemiology • Rare. • Significant occurrence between the ages of 20 and 30 years.
Aetiology and Pathogenesis • Believed to result from an aberrant mucosal immune response to luminal bacteria in genetically predisposed individuals. Mutations in the CARD15 gene, which encodes an intracellular receptor for bacterial peptidoglycan components, have been linked to small intestinal Crohn's disease in Caucasian populations. • Smoking elevates the risk. A definitive infectious etiology remains unsubstantiated.
Presentation: • Crampy pain in the right iliac fossa accompanied by diarrhea, typically non-bloody. Fever, malaise, and weight reduction are prevalent symptoms.
Macroscopy • The disease typically affects the terminal ileum and colon. • The involved intestine exhibits thickening with infiltration of mesenteric fat surrounding the anti-mesenteric barrier, referred to as 'fat wrapping.' • Adhesions and fistulas may be observed between contiguous loops of bowel. • The mucosal surface exhibits linear ulcers and cobblestoning.
Histopathology- Mucosal biopsies exhibit diversity in inflammation both within a single biopsy and among many biopsies, which is a critical characteristic. This is usually exhibited by distinct regions of inflammation near histologically normal crypts. Surface erosions and ulcerations may be evident. Poorly formed granulomas may occur, but they are often rare. • Resection specimens: deep fissuring ulcers delineated by reasonably normal mucosa. Lymphoid aggregates are located in the submucosa and muscle layers. Granulomas of suboptimal formation may be observed.
Prognosis: • Characterized by a relapsing and remitting trajectory. • The majority of patients necessitate surgical intervention at some stage to alleviate symptoms resulting from obstruction or fistula formation. • Elevated risk of small and large bowel adenocarcinoma. Extragastrointestinal signs encompass enteropathic arthropathy,anterior uveitis, gallstones, erythema nodosum and pyoderma gangrenosum.
Definition: An idiopathic inflammatory bowel illness distinguished by multifocal regions of inflammation that can affect any segment of the gastrointestinal system.
Epidemiology • Rare. • Significant occurrence between the ages of 20 and 30 years.
Aetiology and Pathogenesis • Believed to result from an aberrant mucosal immune response to luminal bacteria in genetically predisposed individuals. Mutations in the CARD15 gene, which encodes an intracellular receptor for bacterial peptidoglycan components, have been linked to small intestinal Crohn's disease in Caucasian populations. • Smoking elevates the risk. A definitive infectious etiology remains unsubstantiated.
Presentation: • Crampy pain in the right iliac fossa accompanied by diarrhea, typically non-bloody. Fever, malaise, and weight reduction are prevalent symptoms.
Macroscopy • The disease typically affects the terminal ileum and colon. • The involved intestine exhibits thickening with infiltration of mesenteric fat surrounding the anti-mesenteric barrier, referred to as 'fat wrapping.' • Adhesions and fistulas may be observed between contiguous loops of bowel. • The mucosal surface exhibits linear ulcers and cobblestoning.
Histopathology- Mucosal biopsies exhibit diversity in inflammation both within a single biopsy and among many biopsies, which is a critical characteristic. This is usually exhibited by distinct regions of inflammation near histologically normal crypts. Surface erosions and ulcerations may be evident. Poorly formed granulomas may occur, but they are often rare. • Resection specimens: deep fissuring ulcers delineated by reasonably normal mucosa. Lymphoid aggregates are located in the submucosa and muscle layers. Granulomas of suboptimal formation may be observed.
Prognosis: • Characterized by a relapsing and remitting trajectory. • The majority of patients necessitate surgical intervention at some stage to alleviate symptoms resulting from obstruction or fistula formation. • Elevated risk of small and large bowel adenocarcinoma. Extragastrointestinal signs encompass enteropathic arthropathy,anterior uveitis, gallstones, erythema nodosum and pyoderma gangrenosum.
